§ 26. French Words of Teutonic Origin.

Most Teutonic words were brought into France during the great invasions of the fourth and fifth centuries; many were brought in by the Normans in the tenth century; a few established themselves at the time of the Romans. Almost all became Low Latin before they became French.*

* M. Ampère thinks that the sense attached to words borrowed from the German clearly shows the moral rebellion of the Gallo-Romans against the conquerors. Of land (terre), they made lande (sterile land); of buch (livre) bouquin (old book not worth much); of herr (Seigneur) hère (poor, morally helpless man). See also Du Méril, “Essai philosophique sur la Langue française." Whilst adopting these German elements, the Romance languages did not suffer in their syntax; for they almost completely overcame the influence of the German grammar.Diez, vol. i. See, however, Du Méril, pp. 343-445.

The following are more modern. They date from about the

sixteenth century till the present day.

§ 27. Earliest Manuscripts in Lingua Romana.—It is not meant (§ 9) that the Romance languages began in 842, for from the moment that a language different from Celtic, and different also from Latin, is acknowledged, the Romance language begins. This new language was already called towards the end of the fourth century by the names of lingua vulgaris, rustica, or romana. But the earliest manuscripts in our possession in the language date from this time, viz. :

I. The Glosses of Reichenau, A.D. 768, in which are found many words of the Latin Vulgate with their Romance equivalents. II. The Oaths of A.D. 842.*

Pro dō amur et p xíian poblo et ñro cōmun
salvament d'ist di in avant in quant d'
savir et podir me dunat si salvarai eo
cist meon fradre Karlo et in adiudha
et in cadhuna cosa si cũ om p dreit son
fradra salvar dift in o quid il mi altre
si fazet et ab Ludher nul plaid nuqua
prindrai qui meon vol cist meon fradre
Karle in damno sit.

The same without abbreviations: "Pro Deo amur et pro christian poblo et nostro commun salvament d'ist di in avant in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo et in adjudha et in cadhuna cosa si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dift in o quid il mi altre si fazet et ab Ludher nul plaid nunquam prindrai qui meon vol cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit."

Only one is given here.

C

The origin of the words in the above passage will be seen by comparing it word for word with the following: "Pro Dei amore et pro Christiano populo et nostro communi salvamento de isto die in ab-ante, in quantum Deus sapere et posse mihi donabit sic salvare ego ecc' istum meum fratrem Carolum et in adjutu et in quâque unâ causâ, sic quomodo homo per directum suum fratrem salvare debitus est, in illo quod ille mihi alterum sic faciet; et ab Lothario nullum placitum nunquam prendere habeo, quod mea voluntate ecc' isti meo fratri Carolo in damno sit."

French translation: "Pour l'amour de Dieu et pour le commun salut du peuple chrétien et le nôtre, dorénavant, autant que Dieu m'en donne le savoir et le pouvoir, ainsi je défendrai mon frère Karl que voilà et par aide et en chaque chose, ainsi qu'on a le devoir de défendre son frère, pourvu qu'il me fasse de même; et avec Lothaire jamais je ne prendrai aucun arrangement qui par ma volonté soit au préjudice de mon frère Karl.

§ 28. Dialects and Patois.-When in any country several languages which differ but slightly from each other exist side by side, and are of equal importance, we speak of them as dialects. When one of these, from any cause, becomes alone the literary language of the whole district, the others sink into patois. Till the end of the thirteenth century there were different dialects in France. Since that time there has been one language (French), surrounded by different patois. Similarly in England, till the middle of the fourteenth century there were three dialects-the Southern, Midland, and Northern. To Chaucer's influence we owe the predominance of the Midland dialect, and its use as the literary language. The other dialects still exist as patois.*

The dialects of France can be studied in Fallot's "Recherches," in Burguy's "Grammaire de la Langue d'Oil," in Diez's "Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen;" in the works of Littré, etc. A short and good grammar of the Langue d'Oil has been written by A. Bourguignon; but little is said of the dialects. Brachet, in his "Grammaire Historique," mentions the dialects, but gives few details. In his Dictionary he ignores them entirely. It would seem as if he were gradually becoming of opinion that all the peculiarities of spelling, etc., in our modern language have arisen, not from dialectal differences, but (a) from the influence of the tonic accent, etc., during the spontaneous and natural growth of French, and (b) from the ill-formed words introduced in such numbers when the popular formation ceased. He seems to be overdoing his case, but no doubt there is much truth in his recent views.. It must be understood that we find no trace of them in his "Grammaire Historique," but only in works published since. Compare especially "Dictionnaire des Doublets, 1868," with "Supplément,"

The following translation from Burguy's "Grammaire de la Langue d'Oil" will give all the information needed in a general grammar. At the present time it is perhaps scarcely possible to give anything more accurate. It must be noticed that the dialect of the Isle of France is included under that of Burgundy. The difference is small and unimportant for general purposes.

"Fallot was the first who tried to classify the dialectal forms of the Langue d'Oil. Unfortunately for science, his death prevented the accomplishment of his work. Still I have found all he said to be correct, and I have often profited by his researches. 'Grammatical rules were the same for all the dialects of the Langue d'Oil; all without exception were governed by the

same.'

After having given this fundamental rule, Fallot divides Old French into three principal dialects, which he calls not by the name of a particular province of which it would be the special language, but by that of a province in which the distinctive characteristics are most striking, mostly found together, and most conspicuous-the Normandy dialect, the Picardy dialect, and the Burgundy dialect.

This division has been said to be too broad, but I have found no reason to justify such a serious reproach. Let us not forget that Fallot intended to write a general grammar of all the French dialects, not that of any one dialect in particular; he was therefore obliged to confine himself to generalities, in order not to run the risk of accumulating a mass of secondary and local distinctions. There is no doubt that the dialect of each province deserves to be treated separately, and would easily furnish enough matter for a separate treatise. I hope that the day is not far off when we shall have such a collection, as precious as it would be useful. Fallot had acknowledged that the characteristics of the dialect of a certain province were often found with some secondary differences in the dialects of several other provinces. He therefore made of the first a kind of type round which the others were grouped.

I accept his way of reasoning, and I think with him that the limits of the three dialects-Picardy, Normandy, and Burgundy -did not exactly correspond to the political limits of the provinces where they were spoken. This being understood, I now pass to the classification of the Langue d'Oil.

i. The Normandy Dialect was mostly found in Normandy proper; it then extended through almost the whole extent of Maine, and in Brittany as far as a line which could be drawn from St. Quay to St. Nazaire, leaving on the west Lanvallon, Quintin, Uzil, and passing by Loudéac, Rohan, Questembert, La Roche Bernard. 'On the north it followed the coast of the sea; but there it had been submitted to the influence of the Picardy dialect, with which it mixed altogether in the neigh

bourhood of Abbeville. On the east its limits were nearly those which separate Normandy from the Isle of France; in the beginning of the thirteenth century its influence was felt to the very heart of this last province, and its own forms were introduced as far as the right bank of the Oise, and even to Paris.'*— FALLOT, Recherches, p. 17.

ii. The Picardy Dialect extended to the north as far as the French language extends; that is, as far as a line beginning in the neighbourhood of Gravelines, and going down towards Aire, then up again to Armentières, Courtray, and starting in an almost direct line from there to Liége. Malmédy, St. With, Bastogne, Arlon and Longwy, would almost form the boundary line in the east. It comprehended the northern part of Champagne, and spread over part of Lorraine. Towards the south the Picardy dialect went almost as far as the Aisne; it included thus the last limits of the Normandy dialect, on the west, a large portion of the Isle of France.* One can say that on the whole of this province, as far as the northern bank of the Seine and Marne, it was more or less altered by a mixture with the Burgundy forms.'-FALLOT, Recherches, p. 18.†

iii. The Burgundy Dialect is that of the east and centre of France. That part of the territory on which this language was spoken with the greatest purity, and where its characteristics were most numerous and striking, is comprised very nearly within a line which, beginning at Autun, would return there, after passing by Nevers, Bourges, Tours, Blois, Orleans, Sens, Auxerre, Dijon. It was thus found in all its purity in the Nivernais, in a part of Berry, of Touraine, of Orléanais, and in almost all Burgundy proper. This last province being the most considerable of all those mentioned, I have thought it right to give its name to the dialect which was purer there than in any of the other provinces '-(Fallot, Recherches, pp. 19, 20.) In the east the limits of the Burgundy dialect would be about in a line, leaving the neighbourhood of Delémont, and going down towards Biel, Neuchâtel, and the Orbe. In the north it encroached on Lorraine as far as the neighbourhood of Nancy;

*Italics have been employed to call attention to the Isle of France. They are not in the original.

"I shall be reproached, no doubt, for having understood in the Picardy dialect the language of the Wallons descended from the Belgian Celts. I have done so purposely, because, as far as Liége, the Picard and the Wallon had, and still have, in the towns at least, the same characteristics. 'Le Wallon,' says Mr. Grandgagnage, stops almost exactly at the limits of the province of Limbourg. The intermediate country between this province and the Meuse (forming the limits south and east) is called the Hesbaie. With the exception of a few words and forms, this dialect differs but little; in a certain line round Liége it is, Liégeois; in going near Namur it becomes Namurois.'"