CHAPTER III ANGER (I) I. The Primitive Varieties of Anger WE have here to study the emotional system which is the root of so many of the worst propensities of our character, which yet we cannot, as some of the Stoics recommended,1 eradicate from our nature, but are compelled to accept it, and, if we are wise, to acknowledge its value for men as well as for animals, so long as it is at first balanced by the other instincts, and afterwards comes under the control of the right sentiments. For even the highest love has its anger; and it imparts a nobleness to the most brutal of the emotions. Here, as in the case of fear, the new varieties which arise in human development are directed to new results or ends. Thus anger becomes more plastic, and is no longer restricted to the behaviour of its original instincts. Thus, too, we are able to distinguish between its primitive and derivative forms. For the causes which respectively arouse them are themselves different. For, whereas the causes of primitive anger are sensory stimuli innately connected with the excitement of instincts, the derivative forms, if sometimes also aroused by sensations, are only aroused by them so far as the connexion is acquired through individual experience and thought. Thus, for instance, among primitive causes of anger are overt and threatened attacks, painful blows, and with certain animals, even a near approach to them when they are 1 Seneca and others. The value of Anger as a stimulus to action was recognised by Aristotle and Plato. feeding or with their females. Among secondary causes are insults, deceptions, and thefts. And, just as we can gain an insight into, and so interpret, the primitive types of fear which are specially manifested in the animal world and in the young child, because these still subsist in ourselves-for we, like them, are made afraid by loud noises, by the sudden and rapid approach of strange objects, by the sensation of bodily insecurity when the ground beneath us sways, as in an earthquake, or when we take one step too few or too many on the staircase-so, too, and for the same reason, we can interpret the primitive types of anger. (1) The first variety of anger is so frequently manifested that we may be apt to regard it as universal. Spencer calls anger the "destructive passion." Even in the infant this is partially disclosed. The angry child cries, and accompanies its cries by violent movements of its hands and feet, and by stiffening its back. But it is capable of so few co-ordinated movements that we cannot by observation discover the proximate end of its emotion. The anger is vague; its system undeveloped; we have to interpret it through what it afterwards becomes. Later we find the angry child biting an offender, or dashing what is in its hand to the ground. The latter tendency is so persistent that grown-up people often, when they are angry, feel an impulse to break things, to throw them violently about, to slam, or dash open, doors. Darwin's description of the emotion refers to this tendency: "The body," he says, "is commonly held erect for instant action, but sometimes it is bent forward towards the offending person, with the limbs more or less rigid. The mouth is generally closed with firmness, . . . and the teeth are clenched or ground together. Such gestures as the raising of the arms, with the fists clenched, as if to strike the offender, are common. . . . The desire, indeed, to strike often becomes so intolerably strong, that inanimate objects are struck or dashed to the ground." 1 "1... Among the Carnivoræ, anger is the useful ally of hunger, giving them the courage to attack and kill their prey. Those that do not live on carrion can only satisfy their appetites by the destruction of other animals; hence, 1 'The Expression of Emotions,' ch. x. Q various instincts of pursuit, of attack, and of destruction are organised in their anger, and are manifested in different groups of animals, by some difference of instinctive behaviour, according to their mode of life and means of attack. Thus, there is a primitive variety of anger of which the end appears to be to destroy life, and sometimes also to destroy other things; which is represented in different animals by different instincts of destruction, as well as by others of approach and attack. Even these instincts may have to be perfected by practice. Thus, among the Felidæ the mother trains her young, brings them "small animals," or those that are "half expiring."1 "These she turns loose, and the little fellows practise on them. . . . " Finally the mother takes them with her in her hunts, when they learn all the tricks— the stealthy approach. . . . the hidden attacks." 2 It is interesting to note that among certain animals the instinct of concealment, which plays such a prominent part in primitive fears, appears also to be organised in this variety of anger, as among the Felida. It is dangerous to follow a wounded lion into the bush. It can completely conceal itself behind a slight covering of foliage, whence in rage it springs upon its unsuspecting enemy.3 (2) Destruction is not the end of all varieties of anger : another and familiar type is directed to the overcoming of opposition. The two are sometimes combined, like the types of concealment and flight in fear; but not always. The cause of this variety of anger is always the same. It presupposes an existing impulse, and is only aroused by some interference with, or obstruction of, this impulse. Its end is therefore the overcoming of that obstruction. If death or destruction were taken to be the universal end of anger, it would be difficult to interpret those cases where the outburst of anger is satisfied by something short of this goal. For when the obstruction to an impulse is removed, what need is there of a further display of violence? There is an obvious distinction between 1 Brehm, 'Thierleben,' Felidæ. 2 Ibid. 3 F. C. Selous, 'A Hunter's Wanderings in Africa.' 4 Thus Prof. Stout says, 'Anger involves a tendency to destroy and forcibly to break down opposition' ('Groundwork of Psychology,' ch. xv.). the anger of a man who violently wrenches a door open, or savagely knocks down another man who bars his way, and the anger of one who fights his opponent to kill him. In the former, the anger is an incident in the course of another impulse that precedes and outlasts it: in the latter, the only impulse may be that of the sudden anger itself. In the one the preceding impulse controls the impulse of anger, and restricts it to the breaking down of opposition; and killing, if it arises, is incidental to this end in the other, killing is the end, whether there is or is not resistance; as in so many instances of revenge. Thus among bees, "If by any chance two queens are born at the same time, they at once engage in deadly combat. One queen must perish."1 But with regard to the young queens, they are kept close prisoners "till after the departure of the mother queen with her swarm"; because "the mother queen would destroy all the younger ones could she get the chance, by stinging them. The workers . . . never allow the old queen to approach the prisons of the younger ones. They establish a guard all round these prisons cells, and beat off the old queen whenever she endeavours to approach"; but do not kill her. Thus we see the two types here in clear distinction from one another. Since one of the most frequent causes of anger is opposition to a present impulse or desire, this variety of anger is frequently manifested, yet there are other causes which give rise to other varieties. The emotion may be aroused by the sharp and sudden pain of a blow, or by being insulted, scorned, mocked at, or even neglected, and it is then directed, not to overcoming opposition essentially-for there may be no opposition-but to destroy or punish the offending person, or inanimate objects. (3) Another and familiar type of anger is directed to the prevention of attack, and is expressed in some form of instinctive behaviour of warning or of threats. Dogs often show their anger to one another by a threatening attitude, and growl but do not bite. Thus each dissuades the other from attack, and they part without injury on either 1 Pettigrew, 'Design in Nature,' vol. ii. p. 915. side. The roar of the lion and the hissing of the snake seem directed to inspire fear in possible enemies. "When two or three strange troops of lions approach a fountain to drink at the same time . . . every member of each troop sounds a bold roar of defiance at the opposite party."1 Koppenfels has described the terrifying spectacle of the gorilla when he threatens attack. "If he is taken by surprise, he rises, utters a series of short, half-roaring, half-grunting noises that cannot be described; beats his gigantic chest with his huge fist and shows his teeth with an exceedingly ferocious expression on his face, while the hair on his head and on the nape of his neck stands vibratingly erect. . . . Yet if one does not irritate him and beats a cautious retreat, I do not think he would attack anybody."2 Hudson observes that the skunk, through the efficacy of its threats, often does not need to employ his terrible defensive instinct: "When the irascible little enemy began to advance against us, going through the performances by means of which he generally puts his foes to flight without resorting to malodorous measures-stamping his little feet in rage, jumping up, spluttering and hissing and flourishing his brush like a warlike banner above his head-then hardly could I restrain my dog from turning tail and flying home in abject terror." 3 Sometimes we find this anger of threats manifested in co-operation by a flock of animals. Brehm describes a band of baboons he met as "beating the ground with their hands and barking rather than roaring." "Old and young, males and females, roared, screeched, snarled, and bellowed all together, so that one would have thought they were struggling with leopards or other dangerous beasts. I learned later that this was the monkey's battle cry: it was intended obviously to intimidate us and the dogs. . ."4 Elephants under similar conditions emit a "succession of short, sharp, trumpeting screams" which are "very disconcerting." 5 Brehm remarks of love-combats that "among all 1 Gordon Cumming, 'The Lion Hunter,' ch. ix. 2 Quoted by Brehm, 'Life of Animals,' 1st order: Pitheci. 3 Op. cit. ch. vii. p. 122. 4 From North Pole to Equator,' 'Apes and Monkeys.' |