constituted thus: 80 regiments of infantry of 4 battalions each; 40 battalions of bersaglieri; 19 regiments of cavalry, each of 6 squadrons; and artillery and engineers in due proportion. This army, comprising in time of war about 250,000 men formed in 20 divisions, served in the campaign of 1866, the result of which was the accession to the kingdom of the Venetian provinces evacuated by the Austrians. Four years later it was partly mobilized for the military action which, directed by General Cadorna, ended in the capture of Rome and the overthrow of the temporal power of the Popes.

The time had now come for improvements in the organization and the system of mobilization of the army.

The experience of 1866 and 1870 had made it apparent to all that the principle theretofore followed of making the army division the normal organic unit for the three main arms, and then allowing army corps to be formed of almost any number of divisions, did not work satisfactorily. That unit was not in correspondence with the mode of division of the territory; on the other hand, some of the army corps were not army corps in the modern sense of the word, but veritable armies. Now, War-Minister Ricotti, following in this the system adopted by Germany, constituted the army normally on the basis of army corps, each of two or three divisions. It is true that the division of the territory did not yet exactly correspond with that of the forces, as the territory was divided into only 7 general commands, and 16 territorial commands of division, while the forces could be established in 10 army corps and 20 divisions; nevertheless, the great military units in time of peace were permanently formed nearly in the same way as they ought to be in time of war. In the event of mobilization it was provided that to every 2 divisions there should be added as supplementary troops at the disposal of the respective commands 1 regiment of 4 battalions of bersaglieri, and one or two regiments of cavalry, besides some field batteries. An aggregate of army corps was to constitute an army. The different armies might consist of two, three, four, or more army corps, according to the different tasks assigned to them severally.

The mobilization of the army had not proved satisfactory in either the cam

paign of 1866 or that of 1870; General Ricotti, therefore, to make it so, created the districts. The territory was first divided into 45 districts, and afterwards into 62, and at the head of each of them was placed a superior infantry officer, to be assisted by a smaller or greater number of subaltern officers, and disposing of one or two infantry companies to do the service of the district. To the district was assigned the whole business of enlisting and receiving the recruits, of mobilizing the men recalled from furlough, and of giving the instruction. By the creation of a new corps, that of the Alpine infantry, a very important addition was given to the infantry. Originally (1872) the Alpine comprised no more than 15 companies, but in 1873 they were increased to 24. They were distributed along the frontier mountains that separate the Italian Kingdom from France, Switzerland, and Austro-Hungary. Their contingents were and are recruited in the regions of the Alps, and the instruction so specialized as to fit them as well as possible for the defence of the Alpine passes.

Not less attention was given by Ricotti to the other arms. He increased the cavalry by creating a 20th regiment; reorganized the artillery into 10 field regiments of 10 batteries each, with 8 pieces to each battery; and the garrison artillery into 4 regiments of 15 companies each. The pontoniers and the sappers, who were included in the artillery, were instead attached to the engineer corps. The services of the artillery and of the engineers were, together with the service of forts, placed under the supervision of the general command of some artillery and of a few engineer corps. Finally, special corps were created for both the sanitary and the supply departments.

Ricotti's reorganization marked undoubtedly a great improvement over the preceding one. It increased to a notable degree the efficiency of the army in general for all war purposes; it better systematized all the special technical field services, secured a strong defence of the Alpine passes by the creation and organization of the Alpine troops, and lastly improved all the arrangements and services necessary to the quick and orderly mobilization of the army. Italy could now count on 300,000 combatants of the first line.

We have said combatants of the first line, for under Ricotti's administration there came into existence also a secondline army by the institution of the active militia (Milizia Mobile"). In fact, provision was made, for the first time in Italy, to the effect that the military districts should have in readiness all the means and materials necessary for the formation of 108 battalions of infantry, 15 of bersaglieri, and of 24 companies of Alpine troops. So likewise each of the 10 field artillery, and each of the 4 garrison artillery regiments, as well as the engineer regiments, was furnished with all the elements required for the formation respectively of 3 field batteries, 3 garrison artillery companies, 1 pontonier and 8 engineer companies.

Of the local militia ("Milizia Territoriale") General Ricotti laid the foundation under the law June 7, 1875, which he obtained from the national parliament. By that law compulsory military service was extended to all able-bodied citizens, unless expressly excluded, up to the age of forty years. Under the same law General Ricotti instituted also a special militia for the defence of the island of Sardinia, forming it with those soldiers, native of the island, who, after three years' service in the regular army, were sent home on unlimited furlough.

Generals Lamarmora and Fanti were the founders and Ricotti the reorganizer of the Italian national army. Let us now see how this army, which was already considered one of the foremost in Europe, has been further improved since 1875.

The so-called progressive party having in 1876 obtained the ascendant in the Italian parliament, General Luigi Mezzacapo, a man of deep and broad mind, was called to succeed Ricotti as war minister. He accepted, in the main, the military organization adopted by his predecessor, and set about developing and perfecting it.

He increased the territorial army corps commands to 10, and the divisional commands to 20, corresponding to the 10 army corps to be formed in the event of war. The districts were established on a more solid basis, and their number raised to 88, whereby mobilization was rendered more rapid.

Through the modifications introduced by General Mezzacapo, the military estab

lishment of Italy was put in better harmony with the fundamental principle of the systems of the principal modern armies, requiring that the troops of the first line, at least, be so organized in peace-time as to correspond exactly to the war foot establishment. Besides this, better facilities for mobilization were provided, the first defence of the frontiers was strengthened, and the organization on war foot of the second line secured.

But the political relations between France and Germany on one side, and between Austria and Russia on the other, the new colonial policy of the principal European powers, especially after the conditions prescribed by the Treaty of Berlin, and the changes of a protective character in the commercial policy, particularly of France, placed Italy in a position that appeared full of danger. Furthermore, the state of the land boundaries, the enormous extension of the seacoasts, the constant improvements in the means of attack, which rendered the defences of both the Alps and the coast precarious, the geographical configuration of the country, and the limited means of communication, which rendered the mobilization and concentration of troops slow

all these things together made it plain that the ten permanent first-line army corps were inadequate to the defence of the country. The necessity of increasing the first-line forces, then, became imperative, all the more as it was not certain that the second-line corps could be formed promptly enough to be ready to take the field at the needed time. These were the reasons for the new modifications of the military system in 1882 by the minister of war, General Ferrero.

Under this system the field army was increased by 2 active army corps; the Alpine and the cavalry arms were also both increased, and furnished, the former with mountain artillery, the latter with horse batteries. The first-line army on war foot comprised 400,000 combatants, perfectly armed and equipped. The active militia was also considerably augmented.

As to the local militia, efficient measures were taken which secured the formation in case of war of 320 battalions of infantry, 30 of Alpine troops, 100 companies of garrison artillery, 30 of engineers, 13 of sanitary and 13 of supply troops.

The division of the territory of 1887 was modified in accordance with the number

of the active army corps of the first line which could be formed; consequently there were instituted 12 territorial army corps and 24 territorial divisional commands, besides a military command in the island of Sardinia.

But the system of 1882-6 had one great fault, viz., the army corps were quite deficient in field batteries, and the regiments of the arm had a very slow and difficult task to perform, being charged with the mobilization of 10 permanent batteries of 8 pieces each, and of 3 active militia batteries, these also of 8 pieces. Indeed, if the field artillery, following the example of the other European armies, had been increased in each army corps, their task would have become altogether too slow and too difficult.

This was the principal reason which caused the constitution of the national army to be modified anew in 1887, mak ing it what it has been ever since.

The royal Italian army, as at present organized, consists of the active or firstline army, the active militia ("Milizia Mobile"), and the local militia (“Milizia Territoriale"). The first-line army is composed of corps which are kept permanently in active service. The active militia is under arms in peace-time only during the period of instruction, and occasionally as the maintenance of public order and peace may require. In war-time it may be called out to co-operate with the permanent army in any military operations.

The local militia is likewise kept under arms in time of peace only temporarily, for the same purposes and under the same circumstances as the active militia. In time of war it has the special destination of defending the cities and fortified places of the kingdom; but in case of urgent need or foreign invasion it also may be called upon to aid in any field operation.

The organization of these three great sections of the military establishment is as follows:

Permanent army: I. A general staff of 163 general officers in peace-time, taking charge of the different permanent commands. II. A staff consisting of a commanding general, who is the chief of the army staff, of 2 assistant generals, of 68 colonels, lieutenant-colonels, and majors, and of 84 captains. To these are to be added 120 infantry captains, 6 clerks,

and several other assistants. III. The royal carabineers. IV. The infantry. V. The cavalry. VI. The artillery. VII. The engineers; and lastly, the sanitary corps, the commissariat, the accountant, and the veterinary corps.

The staffs of all the various arms and corps of the permanent army are in peacetime composed of officers in permanent service, whose number in each arm or corps and whose rank are determined by special law. However, the distribution of the officers among the different services of one and the same arm, or any one corps, may be changed every year through the Budget law.

A hasty sketch of the constitution of the several arms and corps on both the peace and the war footing will suffice to show the degree of efficiency of the permanent army.

The carabineers were instituted in January, 1861, by bringing together into one body all the military corps which had charge of the public peace and order in the different provinces of the kingdom. This body was organized on the same plan as the one formerly existing in Piedmont, from which it received the largest contingent, the uniform, regulations, discipline, and the corps pride. It is formed of men chosen with the utmost care, and is greatly esteemed for its noble traditions. In time of peace it looks to the public order and peace, and during war it furnishes to the commands of the several armies, army corps, or mobilized divisions some sections of both its foot and horse men for police and guide services. A large portion of the carabineer corps, being replaced in the local service by carabineers recalled from furlough, is formed into battalions of picked infantry, and is moblized for field operations. The carabineer corps comprises 1 general command, 11 local legions for police service, 1 school legion ("allievi carabinieri "), furnishing the instruction to the recruits of the arm. The entire force consists of 3 general officers, 58 superior officers, 532 inferior officers, 40 medical and accountant officers— total number of officers, 633; 21,000 foot carabineers, 3888 horse carabineers-total number of troops, 24,888. The troop horses number 3758, of which 3518 are the carabineers' own property. All the officers are mounted. The foot carabineers mobilized in battalions constitute a somewhat heavy but select and very solid infantry.

The infantry is organized in 96 regi ments, forming 48 brigades. The entire strength is: Officers for 48 brigade commands: generals, 48; adjutant field captains, 48. Officers for 96 regiments-superior officers, 480; inferior officers, 5376. Total number of officers, 5952; total number of troops, 124,704.

Each regiment comprises a staff, 3 battalions of 3 companies each, and a depot. Of the 96 regiments, 2 are recruited from the tallest men in the country, and form the brigade of grenadiers.

The infantry is excellently armed. The Wetterly repeating rifle, improved by the Vitali system, constitutes-more especially now, after the adoption of smokeless powder, which increases both the initial velocity and the exactness of the aim-a most effective fire-arm. At present, however, a new repeating gun of small calibre is being experimented. The private of infantry is well clothed and equipped. He carries a total weight of about 25.7 kilograms, including uniform, knapsack, gun, and 88 rounds of ammunition. He is supplied with poles and canvas for the erection of triangular tents capable of receiving three or six men. The Italian infantry stands long marches, moves briskly and with ease at parade, is agile and adroit in manoeuvring. Whenever ably commanded, it has shown coolness under fire and resolution in attacking. It very properly forms a constant object of the special care of our war ministers, but, owing to its large numbers, its equipment still lacks some of the latest improvements. The staffs of the infantry are mostly men rather young in years. The superior officers and the captains are mounted, and the other regiment or company officers are of an average age which enables them to bear the fatigues of marches and manoeuvres. Of the 48 brigades, that of the grenadiers and the first nine of infantry have a brilliant military history, dating from the sixteenth centu

bersaglieri do not differ from those of the infantry. The bersaglieri are chosen from among the strongest and best-proportioned men in the country, and this, together with their uniform, their bearing, and special way of manoeuvring, renders them the most picturesque and striking infantry of Europe.

In order to secure uniformity in their instruction, the bersaglieri are placed under the supervision of a general, who is assisted by a captain and a subaltern officer, and whose supervisory office ceases in time of war.

The mountain or Alpine infantry consists of 75 companies, formed into 22 battalions, and these into 7 regiments. Each regiment has a depot. The aggregate strength is represented by 487 officers and 9575 privates.

This corps, recruited solely from the population of the Alps, has special abilities for mountain service. It is armed like the infantry, but its uniform and equipment are suited to the mode of living and manoeuvring in elevated and mountainous regions. Each company in time of peace is provided with mountain artillery carried by 8 pack-mules. The Alpine soldiers have not yet received the baptism of fire, but their bold manoeuvres in the highest mountains, their hazardous and successful crossing of the most perilous passes, in spite of snow and storms, their daring ascents in the coldest winters, warrant the perfect trust that is placed in them.

The Alpine corps is also under the inspectorship of a general officer, who is assisted by a captain and a subaltern officer. It need hardly be said that these interesting troops, having in custody the gates of Italy, are naturally the most exposed to the attack of invaders, and the first to carry war outside the boundaries of their country.

The administration of the 87 military districts is assigned to the infantry. It is the business of the district in time of peace to prepare and carry out the annual recruitment, and forward to their respective regiments all the men recalled from furlough, who are to raise the infantry and the bersaglieri from peace to war footing. The districts in peace time have an adequate number of officers and privates for the keeping of matriculation books and the custody of the military storehouses containing the arms, accoutre