THE

STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH PROSE.

INTRODUCTION.

I.

RHETORIC DEFINED.

1. RHETORIC IS THE ART OF DISCOURSE',—the Art of Communicating Thought in Language.

2. In no proper sense, is Rhetoric a science; nor should it be defined as the art of effective discourse. It discovers nothing; it is like all other arts in aiming at efficient work; and its full definition, therefore, is that just given. The discussion of these questions, however, belongs elsewhere.2

3. A more familiar word for Discourse is COMPOSITION, ‚—a synonym that will be used freely in these pages. The more technical term seems necessary in the definition, however, if only for clearness' sake; since Composition also denotes Practical Rhetoric as opposed to the Theory of the art.3

4. THOUGHT is here intended in its widest signification. In a certain sense, the mind thinks whenever it acts; and in this sense, Thought is the product of any mental action. Hence, Dr. Campbell speaks of Rhetoric 1 H. N. Day, The Art of Discourse, ? 1.

2 Appendix, pp. 329 ff.

32 10, below.

421, above.

as "the grand art of communication, not of ideas only, but of sentiments, passions, dispositions, and purposes',' —in a word, the art of communicating any product of the mental faculties. Exactly how much is intended by the term will appear from the following analysis.

5. The human mind acts in three ways;-it knows, it feels, it wills. Hence, three modes of mental activity, or (as they are otherwise called) mental faculties,- -I. INTELLECT, or COGNITION; 2. SENSIBILITY, or FEELING; 3. WILL. The Intellectual, or Cognitive Faculties may (for present purposes) be distinguished as (1) Presentative, (2) Re-presentative, (3) Elaborative. The Presentative Faculties include (a) Intuition, or Self-consciousness, the power of knowing what is going on in one's own mind; (b) Perception, the power of knowing through the senses. The Re-presentative Faculties are (a) Memory, which re-presents objects as real; (b) Imagination, which represents them as ideal. The Elaborative Faculties are (a) Conception, or Generalization, the power of forming class-ideas; (b) Judgment, the power of comparing conceptions (or one conception with an intuition or a perception) and affirming their agreement or disagreement; (c) Reasoning, the power of comparing judgments.

6. Words that either present or re-present intuitions, perceptions, or conceptions, are called Terms. Hence, Judgment is the power of comparing terms.

7. LANGUAGE' primarily and chiefly means articulate speech or alphabetic writing; but many principles of Rhetoric apply equally well to the communication of thought by other means. Signs, symbols, pictures, statues, all express thought, and in so far are amenable to the laws of Rhetoric. Indeed, both picture-writing and symbolism are older than the alphabet,-are the sources from which the alphabet took its rise.

8. The truth of this statement will hardly be challenged by any one who reflects that the medium of communication is of secondary importance,-that the essential characteristic of 1 The Philosophy of Rhetoric, Introduction.

221, above.

discourse is its communicating thought. The mode of communication may vary; but, so long as thought is communicated, so long must the process be governed in certain particulars by the same rules. For example, the artist, who has this end at least partly in view, is directed in his work by certain laws that are equally binding upon the writer. The laws of unity, of definiteness and continuousness, of proper resolution of the subject into its several parts, as well as many other rules, direct both workers alike,-and for the same reason, that both seek to communicate thought. Lessing1 has actually asserted that Painting can express some kinds of thought better than Poetry.

9. Further, (if further discussion is necessary,) the case of the deaf-mute is strongly in point. Until he acquires his signlanguage, his mind lies dormant, failing of its office because it lacks a means of communication. But, this once furnished, even if he does not learn to articulate, his mind develops and admits of the highest education. The idiot, on the other hand, can never be relieved because he cannot receive thought, however it is addressed to him. Midway stands the feebleminded child, who is capable of training exactly in proportion to his degree of mental endowment. An extreme case of a mind aroused to the exercise of all its faculties, simply by receiving a medium of communication, and this not language in the ordinary sense, is that of Miss Laura Bridgman, who, though born deaf and dumb and blind, was taught through the sense of touch. Moreover, gestures and facial signs not only add to the effectiveness of spoken discourse, but, it is said, were the only means by which the famous conspiracy of the Sicilian Vespers was inaugurated and carried to a successful issue. So, the Greek sculptor carved motion by setting one foot of his statue in front of the other.

1 Laocoon, xx., xxi.—Of course, he concedes, too, the limitations of Painting and its cognate arts. (See 369 ff., below.)

2 Geo. P. Marsh, Lectures on the English Language, p. 34.

II.

RHETORIC PROPER AND COMPOSITION.

10. As thus broadly defined, Rhetoric includes studies of two widely different kinds ;—(1) Theoretical Discussions of Rhetorical Rules and Principles,-Rhetoric PROPER, or simply RHETORIC; (2) Practice in the actual work of Constructing Discourse,-COMPOSITION.

II. "Rhetoric and Oratory," says John Quincy Adams, "are to be distinguished as properly applying, the former to the theory, and the latter to the practice of the art." By oratory, Mr. Adams meant composition2; so that his statement fully supports that made in § 10. Prof. Day, too, calls his theoretical treatise The Art of Discourse (that is, Rhetoric), but his more practical (as well as more elementary) work The Art of English Composition.

12. The distinction results from the fact that, in every art, there may be distinguished three elements;—(1) Rules, which guide and control the practice of the art; (2) Scientific Principles, which underlie the rules, and explain or justify them; (3) Practice, the application of both rules and principles to actual work. Thus, in Drawing, the pupil is not simply given a copy or a model, and told to reproduce it on his paper: he is taught, also, rules for his guidance while at work, and principles of form, of light and shade, of perspective-for the elucidation of his rules. So, in Engineering, in Analytical Chemistry, in every art, rules and principles at every step direct the practical work, and throw light upon it. Indeed, if, in any art, one of these three elements is wanting, the art is yet in embryo, or the missing element undeveloped.3 In the Art of Discourse, (1) and (2) constitute Rhetoric Proper; (3) is Composition.

13. Further, rules and principles, as true in all cases to which they apply, are in this respect essentially opposed to the practical application of rules or principles to special examples. 1 Lectures, I. p. 34. 3 Appendix, p. 333.

2 Appendix, p. 336.

The methods of study in each case must, therefore, be different, and a distinction between the two departments be inevitable. Not to concede this is only to create confusion and to place obstacles in the way of the student. Of course, rhetorical rules may be studied simply as rules, and not in the light of their underlying principles, just as the principles may be studied as such, and not with a view to formulating rules that are to be based upon them; but, in either case,—and neither is usual or likely to occur,-the study is still Theoretical Rhetoric, and is opposed in the sense stated to the practice of Composition, or Practical Rhetoric. This is true, too, whether the practical work proceeds only by "rules of thumb," (that is, by unexplained rules, rules without their underlying scientific truths— their rationale,) or whether this rationale is in every case carefully given with the rule.

14. But the distinction must not be carried too far, Rhetoric and Composition are not wholly separable. Each implies the other; each contributes to the other's improvement. Of course, either can be conceived of separately; either can at any time command the chief attention; but the two studies are in fact only one,-a single object approached from different sides.

15. To speak more technically, Theory and Practice are correlatives, implying each other, and having their common ground of relation in the nature of Art as art. Practice unfailingly tends to develop theory; theoretical discussion as inevitably makes practice more perfect. Certain art-practice, it is true, seems to be wholly unguided by either rule or principle; but, in fact, it is not so. Every one who practices an art, though in ever so unintelligent a way, acquires by his experience both rules and principles; and these, though he never formulates them, really control and direct his work.1

1 Appendix, p. 335.