ARCHEOLOGY AND BIBLICAL RESEARCH.

THE BOOK OF THE DEAD.

THE Book of the Dead has been called the Bible of the old Egyptians. Such an appellation, however, is quite misleading, since it has little or nothing resembling the Jewish and Christian Scriptures, commonly known as the Bible. Champollion, before the contents of the book were fully known, called it a funerary ritual, and Lepsius, for the lack of a better name, the Book of the Dead. "A Guidebook for the Disembodied Spirit through Hades " would have been a more philosophical title. This sacred book of Egypt is to a large extent pictorial, being made up of representations of sacred animals, gods, and scenes illustrating the experiences of the soul in Amenti, that is, the nether world. Along with these pictorial representations we find hieroglyphic and hieratic inscriptions, containing minute details of the land beyond through which the soul had to make its dreary pilgrimage in order to reach Sechit-Aarru, or the fields of the blest. These representations and inscriptions are found carved or painted upon the walls of tombs, on sarcophagi, on the inside and outside of coffins, or written on papyri which were hidden in some vessel or niche in the burial chamber, placed in the coffin along with the mummy, and sometimes securely wrapped under the bandages.

It is important, at the outset, to bear in mind that the inscriptions thus found were not copied from the Book of the Dead, as, in our day, verses from the Bible are carved on tombstones; but, rather, the Book of the Dead is composed of inscriptions from various tombs and coffins. Accordingly, the sacred literature of Egypt, like that of most nations, shows a growth. Unfortunately, however, for the destructive critic, if the best Egyptologists are to be trusted, the older the text the purer and profounder the thought; retrogression, rather than progress, is very apparent. Not only were new chapters added from time to time, but old ones were rewritten, various explanations of words and difficult phrases were inserted, and what was simply intended as explanatory became, in the course of ages, incorporated in the text, so that it is often almost impossible to decide which is the original and which is the gloss or commentary. The Book of the Dead boasts of great antiquity. Perhaps it would be going too far to assert, with Maspero, that it "must have existed from prehistoric times; " yet there can be no doubt that portions of it date back to the first dynasty. It is a significant fact that much of the text was so corrupt as to be unintelligible as early as the eleventh dynasty. The oldest part of any length yet discovered is that found on what is believed to have been the coffin of Mycerínus, of the fourth dynasty, or B. C. 3633. It is now well known that several long chapters have been taken from the tombs of the fifth and sixth dynasties. These were, of course, in hieroglyphics, though hieratic writing is found in the sepulchral

chambers of the eleventh dynasty. According to Budge, one of the best authorities, there are in the British Museum fragments of the book written on papyrus which were found with the mummy of An-Antef, likewise of the eleventh dynasty.

The Book of the Dead is not a treatise on ethics, or in any sense a code of laws for the government of men in this life; neither is it a collection of prayers for use in the temples, nor even a ritual for funeral occasions. It is, rather, a collection of prayers or hymns for the guidance of the soul in Amenti. Amenti was no myth to the Egyptian, but, much more, a very real country, with its towering mountains, barren sands, and dangerous torrents full of boiling waters. The topography of this land was as well known to the priests as that of Egypt itself. According to the teaching of the hierarchy, the journey through Amenti, lasting for millenniads, was beset with untold difficulties; for not only hostile demons and evil genii, but many subterranean beasts and reptiles as well, conspired to hinder the safe passage of the soul. Even the burning sand, all but destitute of life, was infested with horned vipers. The Book of the Dead was to aid the soul in overcoming all obstacles between himself and final bliss. The rubric at the end of the seventy-second chapter defines the object of the book so fully as to justify its insertion in this place: "If this book is learned upon earth or executed in writing upon the coffin he will come forth by day in all the forms he pleaseth, with entrance into his house without repulse. And there shall be given to him bread and beer and flesh-meat upon the table of Osiris. He will come forth to Sechit-Aarru, and there shall be given to him wheat and barley there; for he will flourish as though he were upon earth, and he will do all that pleaseth him, like those gods who are there, undeviatingly, for times infinite.”

Not only was the soul able to assume the form of any animal or god, but the gods came to his immediate aid whenever he could speak the right word or formula. Hathor, the sacred cow, carried him on her back at full gallop over the highest hills and most dangerous places; Thoth, in the form of an ibis, bore the soul on his wings; and still other gods met him with the solar bark to convey him safely over the turbulent waters separating this world from paradise. As we see from the first line of the above rubric the prayers might be learned in this life. So great, however, were the difficulties to be encountered and the dangers to be avoided and so minute the directions for overcoming them that few, if any, Egyptians cared to trust the memory on so momentous a question. Even Ani, the great scribe of Amen-Ra, at Thebes, provided his tomb with a copy of these talismanic incantations and magical formulas.

The Book of the Dead, being a loose collection of inscriptions from various sources, gathered together into a whole something after the fashion of a modern hymnal, only with very much less care, would vary in size according to the time, place, and tastes of the collector. Naville has well said that the arrangement is purely artificial, without regard to doctrine, or even chronology. The number of chapters inscribed on a tomb or written in a papyri would also greatly depend upon the ability or affec

tions of the deceased's relatives. Some burial chambers contain almost the entire collection and are, in other regards, genuine works of art. Some papyri are likewise complete and very costly, beautifully executed, containing not only the text, but illuminations, vignettes, and rubrics, and are elegantly painted, sometimes in more than a dozen colors. We have every reason for believing that the preparation of the tomb, with all its furnishings, inscriptions, and papyri included, if not directly managed by the priests, was yet under their direct control. The burial guilds would naturally keep a large selection of copies of the sacred book in stock, like other necessary articles for a decent burial, at prices to suit the customer. The carelessness with which many papyri have been made proves clearly that they are the work of unskilled men, ignorant not only of the subject, but of the very language, and that they were written for gain, and not from a sense of sacred duty.

Copies of the Book of the Dead, more or less complete, have been found in a thousand tombs or coffins. New ones are constantly coming to light. Grébaut, not long ago, found no less than fifty at Thebes. There are over a thousand papyri containing a portion of the book in different museums. Indeed, of the papyri hitherto discovered, fully nine tenths, according to Maspero, are manuscripts of this work. Two copies have been known for many years-the one in hieratic at the Louvre, published in part by De Rougé, and the other in hieroglyphic at Turin. The latter, so thoroughly studied by Lepsius and divided by him into one hundred and sixty-five chapters, is one of the longest. Lengthy, however, as the Turin papyrus is, there are quite a number of chapters found in other recensions which it does not contain. It is not easy to account for this, since several of the chapters omitted are among the most ancient. The most plausible explanation is that there were rival sects and several editions. These missing parts, called supplementary chapters, have been published by Pleyte, Leyden, 1881. The Turin papyrus, though in a very corrupt text and full of errors of various kinds, and though not as ancient and trustworthy as that of Ani, Nebset, or Nebseni, is, nevertheless, the one most frequently quoted, as in our day the Authorized Version of the Bible leads all others in the English language. This Turin papyrus was fully described and partially translated into German by Lepsius. Dr. Birch's English version from this papyrus has been known for many years. A few months ago Dr. Davis, of Meriden, Conn., published another translation, not directly from the original, but from the French of Pierret. Neither of the above English translations is entirely trustworthy. The Theban recensions are regarded as much more reliable than any others. In 1886, after many years of great labor in collating texts and inscriptions from sarcophagi, coffins, and other resources, Naville published his critical edition of the Theban period (B. C. 1700-1200). This excellent work is now in course of translation into our language by that eminent Egyptologist, P. Le Page Renouf. One hundred and six chapters have already appeared in the Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archæology. The work is elucidated by copious notes, comparison of variants,

and explanation of difficult words. Renouf's edition when completed will be the finest translation into any modern language.

Like the sacred literature of most nations, the Book of the Dead has been regarded as inspired; indeed, we are assured that some parts of it were written by the finger of Thoth, the god of letters. Unlike the Old Testament, which has so little to say of the future life, and still less of an intermediate state, the Book of the Dead is devoted almost exclusively to the experiences of the soul on its tedious and toilsome journey to paradise. No one can study a page of this most ancient book or, indeed, any of the funeral customs of the Egyptians, without being fully convinced of their belief in the immortality of the soul and the final revivification of the mummy. Grotesque and crude as were these notions, they were, none the less, sacred truth to them. Moses, no doubt, was well versed in the sacred literature and theology of Egypt. So were the more intelligent Hebrews who, with their great leader, left Egypt for Canaan. How ridiculous, therefore, the assertion often made that the Jews knew nothing of a life beyond the grave until, at least, several centuries after the exodus! Since, however, the Egyptians held such distorted views and encouraged such needless expenses on the mummy and sepulture, and since they taught that Amenti was a middle place where reparations might be made for neglect in this world, it is not wonderful that Moses emphasized the present life, since he well knew that correct living in this world would be the best preparation for the life beyond. It will be conceded readily that silence on this subject is far better than the wild vagaries and extravagant teachings of the priests of Heliopolis or Thebes.

We should do the ancient Egyptians great injustice were we to say that they placed no stress upon a moral life on earth. Such an assertion is fully contradicted by chapter cxxv, sometimes called "the negative confessions." It portrays the last stage of the soul's probation, when about to enter the glorified state. The soul appears before Osiris, the judge of Amenti, and his forty-two associate judges. The heart is weighed in this august presence. The plate in the Turin papyrus describing the judgment day, in connection with this chapter, is the largest, completest, and most vividly real of any in the book. Some of the most notable asseverations are the following: "I did no witchcraft;" "I did not use too many words;" "I did not lie;” “I did not steal;” “I did not commit fornication, adultery, or self-pollution; " "I did not rob graves; " "I neither blasphemed nor robbed the gods;" "In short, I did no evil;" "I am pure, I am pure." It is then added, "I gave bread to the hungry, drink to the thirsty, clothing to the naked, a boat to the detained traveler, gifts to the gods, and funeral offerings to the glorified one; I am pure of mouth, I am clean of hands." The heart having balanced, the image of truth is now placed in the body of the deceased. This act is a signal of the resurrection" and the beginning of everlasting life. The four parts of man, separated by death, are reunited, and the perfect being, in obedience to the welcome words, "Come, come in peace," takes his place among the immortal gods.

MISSIONARY REVIEW.

JAPAN'S FIRST "HERETIC."

WHETHER the Japanese Christians are to prove themselves competent to develop a well-balanced Christian Church is still quite a serious problem. The antagonism to everything foreign, which has recently become the dominant sentiment of the entire population, has resulted in an effort to establish a wholly indigenous native Christian Church. They have attempted to formulate a creed of their own, which should not be borrowed from any existing organization of Christians outside of Japan, ancient or modern, and which should be independent of any symbols, even of the early Church. Some have gone so far as to antagonize the acceptance of the Apostles' Creed. Now that native Christians have organized a Church which they recognize as "Japanese," it looks as if they would adopt an ecclesiastical discipline as original as history records. Already large attention has been called to the trial and humiliation of the Rev. Naomi Tamura, the pastor of a large city church in Tokio. He is described as a thickset, energetic man thirty-five years old, who graduated at Princeton, who has written commentaries, translated Cruden's Concordance, and started an industrial school for boys. He came to America to raise funds for this last enterprise, and in his lectures while here made some statements concerning his people which did not tally with Mr. Arnold's representations. Urgently requested to publish these lectures, he at last sold the manuscript to an American publishing house, and they appeared in book form, with the title The Japanese Bride. The volume contained some things not complimentary to his countrymen. Learning of this, they flew into a rage and, though few of them had ever seen the book, furiously condemned its author as unpatriotic. The Christians evidently thought that they must resist any implication of a lack of patriotism, and became furious too. They summoned Mr. Tamura for ecclesiastical trial before his presbytery. By the casting vote of the moderator he was condemned for "slandering his country." He appealed from the decision. Public discussion ensued in the press, which did not mend matters; and the synod, to whom appeal was taken, it has been alleged, was packed with men of one mind. Instead of suspending they deposed him, changing the accusation at the time they were about to read his sentence and admitting no protest to be entered on the record. Mr. Tamura's church instantly withdrew its connection with the synod; and, declining to acknowledge the authority of the synod, he continues to be the pastor of an independent church. There are seven cooperating missions from abroad in Japan, which constitute a "council" to the "Church of Christ in Japan," which has given this anomalous exhibit of churchly order. This "council" declared by resolution their regret at the course of the Church. Nobody has alleged that Mr. Tamura's book