of nature, and to make the appulse as gradual as he pleased. He thus had an opportunity, he says, of witnessing the overlapping of the two images at leisure, and of convincing himself of the sufficiency of optical considerations for the explanation of what he saw.

INTENSE COLD IN THE NEW WORLD.

THE American Continent and the Antilles were visited by Intense Cold in January, 1857. At Lynchburg, on the 10th, the thermometer was down to 11° above zero. At Savannah it indicated 18° above, and in Florida 21° above, being the coldest weather ever known in that region. Ice formed two inches in thickness. In Havana, a severe frost did considerable injury to crops-a phenomenon almost unknown in that latitude. In all the western rivers steamers were frozen up. The great lakes were covered with firm ice, extending many miles from shore. In the North-western States, the severity of the weather was almost unprecedented, and men and animals perished in great numbers. Accounts from Iowa, written in the first week of January, state that the roads were impassable. Sleds, merchandize, and property were abandoned to the storms. Many men and cattle were frozen to death in the highways. A party of Government surveyors took shelter from a snow-storm in a ravine, which seemed a prairie. They pitched their tent upon three feet of snow, rigged a stove whose pipe ran up through the top of the tent, ate, and went to sleep. A difficulty of breathing aroused the party early, and it was discovered that the ravine had drifted chock full of snow, and that it was then three feet above the top of the tent and the top of the pipe. Out of the entire surveying com. pany, of which they were a part, two men froze to death, two waded the prairie snows in their stockings, unable to draw on their stiff boots, and all were disabled, permanently or temporarily, by the freezing of the extremities.

The mouth of the East River, in New York, was blocked up on 12th of January by a field of ice fifteen acres in extent, through which nothing could pass.

THE GREAT COMET OF 1556.

CONSIDERABLE interest has been excited in the past year, by the expected re-appearance in June last of this Great Comet, which a German astronomer not only foretold, but that on the 13th of June it would destroy the world! To meet this alarm, Mr. Hind, the astronomer, published a small work, wherein he disposes of the probability of near approach and collision.*

The Comet did not re-appear; but, by turning to M. Arago's Popular Astronomy, 'we easily identify the expected visitant with the great comets of A.D. 1264 and A.D. 1556. We learn that it is one of those comets that are visible to the naked eye, and that it has

a period of about 292 years. Its numbers in the catalogue are 17 and 30. We see at a glance, by a comparison of the recorded elements, why it is that these have been pronounced to be appearances of

The Comet of 1556; being Popular Replies to Every-day Questions, referring to its anticipated Re-appearance. By John Russell Hind. J. W. Parker and Son.

the same comet. It is inconceivable that they should be two distinct
bodies, when the inclinations of the orbit to the ecliptic come out
the same within less than a quarter of a degree, when the longitudes
of the node and of the perihelion are almost the same, the former
differing only by a few minutes, the latter by little more than a
degree. The only important variation is that the perihelion distance
is in one case 43, and in the other 50. The reader may wish to
know why, if its period is less than 300 years, it has not made its
third appearance before the year 1857. He will find the solution of
his difficulty in the account of this comet, given in Arago's volume.
Moreover, he will find its whole history, which is as follows:-It
was first observed in 1264, and the elements of its orbit have been
computed by Pingré and Dunthorn. It is stated to have been very
brilliant during the months of August and September, and to have
been followed by a tail of nearly 100 degrees in length. The histo-
rical event with which it is connected is the death of Pope Urban IV.,
which took place on the night of its disappearance.
On its re-
appearance, in 1556, it was observed by Fabricius, on the 1st of
March, and it remained visible till May. It might have been ex-
pected in the year 1848; but the Newtonian theory of gravitation
tells us that it must have been detained by such planets as in its
eccentric course it came into near proximity with, and M. Arago
pronounces that it may be expected some time between 1856 and
1860."-Saturday Review.

ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERIES DURING 1857. ASTRONOMERS were particularly active during the past year, as the following brilliant List of Discoveries will testify:-Comet I., by Dr. D'Arrest, at Leipsic, on the 22nd of February; visible for about eight weeks. Comet II., by M. Bruhns, at Berlin, on the 18th of March; visible for about eleven weeks. This comet is identical with III. of 1844, discovered by M. Brorsen. Planet (43), by Mr. N. Pogson, at Oxford, on the 15th of April; named Ariadne. Planet (44), by M. Goldschmidt, at Paris, on the 27th of May. Comet III., by Dr. Klinkerfues, at Gottingen, on the 22nd of June; visible about four weeks. Planet (45), by M. Goldschmidt, at Paris, on the 28th of June, named Eugenia. Comet IV., by M. Dieu, at the Imperial Observatory, Paris, on the 28th of July; visible about four weeks. This comet was discovered also by Dr. C. H. F. Peters, at Dudley, U.S., on the 25th, and by Professor Habicht, at Gotha, on the 30th of July. Planet (46), by Mr. N. Pogson, at Oxford, on the 16th of August; named Hestia. Comet V., by Dr. Klinkerfues, at Gottingen, on the 20th of August; visible for about six weeks. Planet (47), by Dr. Luther, at Bilk, on the 15th of September. Planet (48), by M. Goldschmidt, at Paris, on the 19th of September; named Pales. Also another planet (49), by the same person and on the same evening; named Doris. Planet (50), by Mr. Ferguson, at Washington, U.S., on the 5th of October; named Virginia. This planet was also detected by Dr. Luther, at Bilk, on the 19th of October. Comet VI., by Dr. Donati, at Florence, on the 10th of November; visible for about five weeks.

METEOROLOGY OF 1857.

Results deduced from the Meteorological Register kept at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, during the year 1857, under the Superintendence of the Astronomer Royal.

The reading of the barometer was above its average value in February, May, June, July, August, October, November, and December, and in defect in the remaining months of the year.

The mean reading of the barometer for the year, at the height of 160 feet above the mean level of the sea, was 29-820 inches, being somewhat above the average value.

The mean temperature of the air in January was in excess of the average value of 85 years by 20; February, by 1°; March, by 1°; April, the average value; May, in excess 140; June, by 330; July, by 3°; August, by 5°; September, by 3°; October, by 310; November, by 310; and December, by 10; according to Mr. Glaisher's determination of the mean temperature of each month.

The mean temperature of the air for the year was 51°1; that of evaporation was 480.2; and that of the dew-point was 450.7. The mean degree of humidity was 83, complete saturation being represented by 100. Rain fell on 126 days; the amount collected was 21.5 inches.

Till January the 4th the weather was very mild, and the mean daily excess of temperature was 72°; from the 5th to the 8th the amount of defect was 31° when a milder period commenced, and to the 20th the mean daily amount of excess was 310; and to the end of the month it was in defect to the mean daily amount of 610. February was warm, being from the 6th to the 24th 34° in excess; on the 25th and 26th, 34° in defect; and for the rest of the month, 3° in excess. March was 3° in excess to the 7th; from the 8th to the 13th, 440 in defect; from the 14th to the 20th, 5° in excess; from the 21st to the 27th, 4° in defect; and for the rest of the month, 410 in excess. April, till the 10th day, was hot, the temperature being 50 in excess; from the 11th to the 16th it was cold, being 6° in defect; it was again hot from the 17th to the 21st, being 51° in excess; and then again cold to the end of the month, being 6° in defect, with snow falling every day. The temperature for this month was about 1° below that of the average of the preceding 16 years. May was cold till the 10th, being 6° in defect, and warm for the remainder of the month, rising to summer temperature in the middle of the month. June was warm till the 8th; cold from the 9th to the 18th; and hot from the 19th; on the 28th, the temperature near the sea rose to 75°; in London, to 88°; and at other places it was somewhat below 90°. This day was the hottest we have experienced since 1846 (July 6th); and it was also remarkable for the small amount of water in the air in the invisible shape of vapour, the temperature of the dew-point being fully 35° below that of the air at times during the day. July, the mean high day temperature was 78°, being 43° above the average; the low night temperature was 511°, exceeding its average by 1°. The mean temperature of the month was 3° nearly in excess. August was warm throughout nearly, the mean temperature being 5° in excess nearly. Since the year 1771, there has been no instance of so high mean temperature-viz., 65°.8-in August as in this year. September was also warm nearly throughout, the temperature being about 3° in excess. October was warm; the temperature was 310 in excess. November was 21° above the average. December was remarkably warm throughout, particularly in the few days preceding and including Christmas Day; the temperature of the month was 5° nearly in excess. In the year 1806, and again in 1852, the month of December was somewhat warmer than in this year; but there are no other instances since 1771 of the month of December being so warm as the one just passed, according to the results obtained by Mr. Glaisher.

The temperature of the year 1857 was about 210 above the average of 86 years. The highest temperature in the year was 920-7 in June; the lowest was 20° in both January and February; the range of temperature in the year was there. fore 72°. The greatest range in one month occurred in June, and was 51° degrees nearly. The average monthly range of temperature was 380, and the average daily range was 17°. The average weight of cubic foot of air, at the level of the sea, was 555 grains in January, 527 grains in August, and the mean for the year was 542 grains.

During the year two remarkably heavy falls of rain occurred. On the 7th of August a storm commenced at Scarborough, which resulted in a serious destruction of property; and by the end of the storm, rain was measured to the depth of 9 inches. So heavy a storm has not been known before in the town by the oldest inhabitant. The other storm took place on the 22nd of October, and fell with greatest violence over London and the counties round about. The fall over London was about 2 inches, and at Royston reached the amount of 3 inches.

Obituary.

LIST OF PERSONS EMINENT IN SCIENCE AND ART. 1857.

ANDREW URE, M.D., the chemist, well known by his Dictionary of Chemistry, System of Geology, and Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines.

JOHN BRITTON, who, by his industry, talent, and integrity, raised himself from humble life to an eminent position among antiquaries and topographers. The EARL OF ELLESMERE," in whom the man of letters, the artist, the explorer, the scientific investigator, have each to mourn a friend."-Athenæum.

ELISHA KENT KANE, M.D., the intrepid (American) Arctic navigator.

The REV. THOMAS DEX HINCKS, LL.D., Professor of Hebrew and Oriental Languages in the Royal Belfast Academy.

M. DUFRENOY, the eminent mineralogist, who was associated with M. Elie Beaumont in the management of the French Government mines, and in the execution of the geological map of France.

DR. ROBERT BALL, of Dublin, an esteemed naturalist.
JOHN MACGREGOR, author of several statistical works.

PROFESSOR KARL AUGUST HAHN, of the University of Vienna, one of the greatest old German scholars belonging to the school of the Grimms.

FREDERIC SCOT ARCHER, the inventor of the Collodion Process in Photography. M. CAVEBY, the celebrated mathematician.

BARON LOUIS JACQUES THENARD, Member of the French Institute, and distinguished chemist.

MORITZ RETZSCH, German painter.

JEAN PIERRE DE BERANGER, the great French poet.
LIEUTENANT HOLMAN, R.N., "the blind traveller."
DR. THOMAS DICK, author of Celestial Scenery, &c.
BISHOP BLOMFIELD, the eminent Greek scholar.

CHARLES LUCIEN BONAPARTE, Prince of Canino, the accomplished ornithologist.

The VERY REV. DEAN CONYBEARE, one of the distinguished geologists of his time. Soon after leaving college, he turned his attention to Geology, then an infant science. One of his first acts was, from some very imperfect remains, to infer the characteristics of an unknown reptile, called by him a "Plesiosaurus." This speculation brought down upon him the sneers of Sir Everard Home, the great authority for comparative anatomy, at that time, in England; but the discovery shortly afterwards of a perfect skeleton proved Mr. Conybeare's sagacity to have been equal to his boldness, and placed him at once in the highest rank of English geologists. In consequence, Cuvier, to whom he was personally unknown, recommended him as Corresponding Member of the Institute of France-an honour never lightly conferred, but which he amply justified by the production, in conjunction with Phillips, of his Outlines of Geology; afterwards, in conjunction with Dr. Buckland, of a very able paper upon the "Geology of the Bristol and South Welsh Coal Fields."