one of the elements is sounded. When two vowel letters are thus brought together in a written word, and the sounds which they represent will not coalesce, they are called a

DIGRAPH.

II. Compound Sounds formed by means of three vowel sounds are called TRIPHTHONGS; as in buoy.

When three vowel letters are brought together in a syllable, and the sounds which they represent will not coalesce, they are called a TRIGRAPH.

III. Compound Consonant Sounds are represented by ch in chest, and by j in jest. Chis-t+sh; j is=d+zh. These are compound Sibilants, that of ch being surd, and that of j being sonant.

The analysis of the sounds in the English language presented in the preceding statements is sufficiently exact for the purpose in hand.

SECTION CXXVI.-RELATIONSHIP OF CERTAIN CONSONANTAL SOUNDS.

σ

1. Let the sign þ represent the single simple sound of th in thin. And, 2. Let the sign & represent the single simple sound of th in thine. And, 3. Let the (Greek Sigma) represent the simple single sound of sh in shine. And, 4. Let the sign (Greek Zeta) represent the simple single sound of z in azure (French j). And, 5. Let the simple sign (Greek Kappa) and the sign y (Greek Gamma) represent two peculiar sounds in the Laplandic, and possibly in some other languages, different from any in English, German, French. Then we have the following relationship:

SECTION CXXVII.--LENE AND ASPIRATE.

Of the sounds just enumerated, p, b, t, d, k, g, s,' z are called LENE; ƒ, v, þ, d, k, y, σ, %, are called ASPIRATE. These terms are used by grammarians; but the term aspirate is thus used in a different sense from what it is when contrasted with the term vocal. P belonging to the first series, and ƒ belonging to the second series, are both surd. P, indeed, is explosive, and f is continuous. But s, however, is continuous, and s, in respect to the difference under consideration, is classed, not with f, the continuous sound, but with p, the explosive one. We have, then, also, the following relationship:

COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY.

SECTION CXXVIII.-PHONETIC ELEMENTS NOT IN THE LANGUAGE.

There are certain phonetic elements in other languages which are not found in the English.

1. Thus the sound of e ferme (close) of the French, which is intermediate to that of a in fate and of e in mete, is not found in English. Its opposite is ouvert (open), as in that of a in fate.

2. The u of the French, ü or y of the Danes, represents a sound intermediate to that of e in mete and oo in book; Tong, as in the French word fûte; short, as in fût. The nasal un represents a sound not in English.

3. O chiuso, of the Italians, is intermediate to the o in note and the 00 in book. The meaning of chiuso is close, in opposition to the open (aperto) sound of o, as in note. This sound is not in the English.

4. The Sanscrit has a vowel r. The short r is pronounced like the consonant r, with a scarcely distinguishable i, and in European texts is usually ri; the long r is scarcely to be distinguished from the union of r with a long i.

5. The Sanscrit has another vowel, which is the union of an 7 with ", or a lengthened 7. In the Slavonic language, 1 and r are considered as vowels.

6. Ch in German, gh in Irish, w in Welsh, represent sounds not found in the English language. The foregoing are only specimens.

SECTION CXXIX.-PHONETIC ELEMENTS NOT IN SOME OTHER

LANGUAGES.

On the other hand, the English has phonetic elements not found in some other languages. Thus, that of th, as in thine, and th, as in thin, are not found in the French and the German; and those of f, v, and of sh are not found in the Javanese. The sound of is wanting in the Zend, and that of r is not in the Chinese. These are only specimens.

SECTION CXXX.-PECULIARITY OF THE MAGYAR LANGUAGE.

The Magyar language resolves the vowels into two classes, a, o, u, masculine; and e, i, ö, ü, feminine. A masculine vowel and a feminine vowel are not allowed to meet in one word, not even in a compound term; for if the last syllable of a word have a masculine vowel, the affix must be made to agree with it accordingly.— BOWRING'S Poetry of the Magyars.

SECTION CXXXI.-DIFFERENCE OF QUALITY IN THE SAME ELEMENT.

The same elementary sound, as exhibited by two individuals belonging to different nations, may differ from itself in quality, just as the same musical note differs from itself when produced by a flute

and a violin. Both the identity and the diversity are perceived at once. This diversity, if it does not proceed from a difference of physiological structure, such as obtains between the different races of men, is to be accounted for by the early training of the organs, which in time become rigid, and lose the imitative power for fixed habits. Having, in this chapter, examined the phonetic elements in their separate existence, we are prepared, in the next chapter, to examine them in their combinations with one another.

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER I.

1. What is the definition of the term phonology in general, and in its application to the English language?

2. What are the phonetic elements of the English language?

3. How are the sounds which constitute language formed, and by what organs?

4. Which is the principal organ of speech, and to what has its name been applied? 5. Into what two classes are the phonetic elements divided?

6. Give the distinctive characteristics of vocalic sounds.

7. Upon what does the peculiar character of the different vowel sounds depend?

8. Give the distinctive characteristie of consonantal sounds, and state why they are so called.

9. To what class of sounds is the word articulate strictly applicable, and to what sounds is it also in use applied?

10. Describe the proper mode of analysing the sounds of which words and syllables are composed, and give examples of this mode.

11. Explain the meaning of the terms surd and sonant, and mention sounds to which they are severally applied.

12. Explain the meaning of the terms continuous and explosive, and mention the sounds to which they are usually applied.

13. Give the headings of each division in the table.

14. Give the phonetic elements under each heading.

15. Give the summation of the surd and sonant elements.

16. Give the summation of the explosive and continuous elements.

17. Give the classification of the elementary consonant sounds according to their organic production.

18. Give the three classes of compound sounds.

19. Enumerate certain phonetic elements which are not in the English language.

20. Enumerate certain phonetic elements found in the English, but not found in some other languages.

21. Explain what is meant by difference of quality in the same element.

CHAPTER II.

THE PHONETIC ELEMENTS IN COMBINATION.

SECTION CXXXII.-PRONOUNCEABLE COMBINATIONS.

1. The Vowel elements in combination with one another, whether they coalesce, as in diphthongs, or continue separate, are easily pronounced, as oi in voice, ia in Indian.

2. The vowel elements, in combination with the consonantal elements, either simple or compound, are easily pronounced, as Atlas, Chester.

3. The Consonantal elements, in combination with one another,"

are some of them pronounced easily, some with difficulty, while some of them cannot be pronounced at all. Thus the sound of r blends easily in the pronunciation with any other consonantal element which precedes it, as in bra, tra. But the sound of t does not easily blend with that of c in the word facts, but requires an effort of the organs, And the sound of d cannot be made to blend with that of p in the combination apd.-See Section CXXXIV.

SECTION CXXXIII, UNPRONOUNCEABLE COMBINATIONS.

Two consonantal elements, the one marked SURD in the table, the other SONANT, cannot be pronounced in the same syllable.-See Table of Elementary Sounds, Section CXVIII.

Thus, if you attempt to pronounce the combination sofd, in which there is a surd and a sonant, you will find it impossible. The same will be true of any like combination. The organs are thrown into a condition by pronouncing the one element which will not allow them immediately to pronounce the other.

SECTION CXXXIV.-A CHANGE OF ELEMENTS IN PRONUNCIATION.

In attempting to pronounce, in one syllable, a surd and a sonant, either the surd will become a sonant or the sonant will become a surd. Thus, in the pronunciation of sofd, the sound of ƒ will become that of v, or the sound of d will become that of t, and the word will become either soud or soft. In the same manner, the combination indicated by the letters sobs must be pronounced as if spelled either sobz or sops. So in the following list:

SECTION CXXXV.THE IMPORTANCE OF THE FACT JUST STATED.

"There is no fact that requires to be more familiarly known than this. There are at least three formations in the English language where its influence is most important. These are, (a) the possessive forms in -s; (b) the plurals in -s; (c) the preterits in -d and -t.

"Neither are there many facts in language more disguised than this is in English. The s in the word stags is sharp; the g in the word stags is flat. Notwithstanding this, the combination ags exists. It exists, however, in the spelling only. In speaking, the s is sounded as z, and the word stags is pronounced stagz. Again, in words like tossed, plucked, looked, the e is omitted in pronunciation. Hence the words become toss'd, pluck'd, look'd; that is, the flat d comes in contact with the sharp and s. Now the combination exists in the

spelling only, since the preterits of pluck, look, and toss are, in speech, pronounced pluckt, lookt, tosst.

"The reason for the difference between the spelling and the pronunciation is as follows: For the possessive case singular, for the nominative plural, and for the preterit tense of verbs, the forms in Anglo-Saxon were fuller than they are in the present English. The possessive singular ended not in -s only, but in -es, and the nominative plural in -as. Similarly, the preterit of the verbs ended either in -od or -ed, not -d only; e.g., wordes of a word (word's); flódes of a flood (flood's); landes of a land (land's); thinges of a thing (or thing's); endas-end's, and so on throughout the language. In this case, the vowel separated the two consonants, and kept them from coming together. As long as this vowel kept its place, the consonants remained unchanged, their different degrees of sharpness and flatness being a matter of indifference. When the vowel, however, was dropped, the consonants came in contact. This reduced a change on one side or the other to a matter of necessity. Liquid and vowel sounds, though vocal or flat, will combine with aspirated or sharp consonant sounds. If this were not the case, the combinations ap, at, alp, art, would be unpronounceable. The law exhibited above may be called the Law of Accommodation. Combinations like bt, kd, &c., may be called Incompatible Combinations."-PROFESSOR LATHAM's English Grammar.

SECTION CXXXVI.-THE ACCUMULATION OF CONSONANTAL ELEMENTS.

Combinations are also unpronounceable from the accumulation of consonantal elements. This is evident from the nature of these elements. It is only saying that there is a limitation to the number of consonantal elements which can be brought together in one syllable.

The consonantal elements have the power of blending with each other in the same syllable in very different degrees. The elements represented by land r have this power of blending with others in a very eminent degree. The element represented by s is distinguished among the surds for its power of blending with the other consonantal elements. The word restraints affords an instance, it is said, of as great a number of consonantal elements pronounceable in the same syllable as can be found in the language. Perhaps the possible number may be somewhat greater.

COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY IN RESPECT TO COMBINATION.

SECTION CXXXVII.-COMBINATIONS NOT IN THE LANGUAGE.

The English, like every other language, has its characteristic combinations. It has but few nasal sounds in comparison with the French; but few guttural sounds in comparison with the Hebrew; but few rough-breathing or true aspirates in comparison with the