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for a noun; as, One long now present time; he said from, not to; none of your ifs. In these examples, now, from, and if are used as Substantives. In like manner, a Preposition can be converted into an adjective; as, A through ticket.

GRAMMATICAL EQUIVALENTS.-When one phrase or word can take the place of another phrase or word in a sentence without materially changing the meaning of the sentence, it is a grammatical equivalent of the other; To err is human error is human. The sign of equality used in Mathematics (=) is the sign in grammar for Grammatical equivalents. See Section DXL.

A SENTENCE is the expression of a thought in words. A declarative sentence is the same as a proposition. Sentences may consist either of one proposition, or of two or more propositions connected together. A sentence consisting of one proposition is called a Simple Sentence; as, "I study my lesson." A sentence consisting of two or more propositions is called a Compound Sentence; as, "Industry procures a competence, and frugality preserves it."

Sentences are Declarative; as, "I am writing." Interrogative; as, "Where am I?" Imperative; as, "Be quiet." Conditional; as, "If he should grieve." Exclamatory; as, "O wretched man that I am For a more full account of sentences, see Section

DXXXI.

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SECTION CCCCLXXVII. THE RELATION OF SYNTAX TO LOGIC.

So closely connected is Grammar with Logic, the former having originally grown out of the latter, that a thorough knowledge of syntactical forms cannot be acquired without a previous knowledge of certain logical forms and logical terms. Part Fifth of this work is, therefore, to be viewed as strictly subsidiary and preparatory to Part Sixth. To that part the student is referred especially for the Definition of such Names as TERMS, SIMPLE TERMS, COMPLEX TERMS, PROPOSITION, COMPLEX PROPOSITION, COMPOUND PROPOSITION.

SECTION CCCCLXXVIII.-GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT.

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The GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT is the same as the Logical Subject, when the latter is a simple term or single word; as, "God is great." Here the Grammatical Subject of the verb is and the Logical Subject are the same,—namely, God.

When the Logical Subject is complex, consisting of a combination of words, the Grammatical Subject is the leading word in that combination. "ALEXANDER, the son of Philip, was the conqueror of Darius." Here Alexander, the son of Philip, is the Logical Subject, being a complex term; and Alexander, the leading word, is the Grammatical Subject. ALEXANDER, who conquered Darius, was the son of Philip. Here Alexander, who conquered Darius, is the Logical Subject, and Alexander is the Grammatical Subject. The Grammatical Subject is either a Noun, or some word standing for a noun.

The Logical Subject consists of the Grammatical Subject and its various modifications.

SECTION CCCCLXXIX.GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE.

The GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE (Latin predicare, to assert) is the same as the Logical Predicate, when the Logical Predicate is contained in a common verb, or when the Logical Predicate is a simple term or single word; as, "He runs,' "he is an orator;" "he is wise." Here the Grammatical predicates are the same as the Logical predicates.

But when the Logical Predicate is a complex term, and made up of a combination of words, the Grammatical Predicate is the leading word in that combination; as, "The Scriptures are worthy of our confidence." Here worthy of our confidence is the Logical Predicate, and worthy is the Grammatical Predicate.

The Grammatical Predicate is contained in a common verb, which also contains the copula; or else is a Noun or an Adjective, or what stands for a noun or an adjective, with the Substantive verb as a copula. A Logical Predicate is the Grammatical Predicate with its modifications. See Section DXXXV.

Of a subject we may predicate,-1. An action; as, "He loves." 2. A quality; as, "Gold is heavy." 3. Identity; as, "Iron is a mineral." In these three cases there is, in the first, a verb; in the second, an adjective; in the third, a substantive.

SECTION CCCCLXXX.-FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

I. ELLIPSIS, Greek

as, an omission, is the omission of some word or words in a sentence necessary to a full and regular construction; as, "The heroic virtues I admire ;" which is here omitted. "He (Marat) three times changed the title of his journal; its spirit, never. Here he changed is omitted. "Better be hurried forward for a season on the wings of the tempest, than stagnate in a death-like calm, fatal alike to intellectual and moral progress.'

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II. ZEUGMA, Greek toypa, a joining, is a species of ellipsis by which an adjective or verb which is put in construction with a nearer word is, by way of supplement, referred to one more remote; as, "They wear a garment like that of the Scythians, but a language peculiar to themselves."

III. PLEONASM, Greek λovaσμós, fullness, is a redundancy of words: "Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining the universal esteem and love of all men." Here universal is redundant, or the and of all men are redundant.

"He

IV. ENALLAGE, Greek vaλayn, change, is the use of one gender, number, case, person, tense, mode, or voice for another; as, begun to write," for "he began to write."

V. HYPERBATON, Greek répßarov, transgression, is the transposi

tion of words out of their natural and grammatical order; as, price beyond," instead of "beyond all price."

" All

VI. HYPALLAGE, Greek izαayn, change, is an interchange of construction; as, "His coward lips did from their colour fly," instead of the colour did fly from his coward lips."

VII. ANASTROPHE, Greek ȧvaorpoon, inversion, is a species of Hyperbaton, by which we place last, and perhaps at a great distance, what, according to the common order, should have been placed first. The beginning of Paradise Lost is an example of that figure:

"Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit

Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste
Brought death into the world and all our woe,

With loss of Eden, till one greater man
Restore us and regain the blissful seat,

Sing, heavenly Muse !"

The natural order of the words in this passage is, Heavenly Muse, sing of man's first disobedience, &c.

VIII. HYSTERON PROTERON, Greek vorepov, latter, pórepov, former, is a species of Hyperbaton, by which that which is first done is last mentioned; as, "He was bred and born in London ;" "Our father is in good health; he is yet alive."

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER I.

1. What is syntax as distinguished from etymology?

2. What are syntactical forms?

3. What is concord? What is government?

4. What is convertibility? Give illustrations.

5. What is a grammatical equivalent ?

6. What is a sentence, and what kinds of sentences are there? Give illustrations. 7. What is ellipsis? with illustrations; and zeugma? with illustrations; pleonasm? with illustrations; enalloge? with illustrations; hyperbaton? with illustrations; hypallage? with illustrations; anastrophe ? with illustrations; hysteron proteron? with illustrations.

8. Can a thorough knowledge of syntactical forms be obtained with a previous knowledge of certain logical forms? Why not?

9. State the difference between a logical subject and a grammatical subject, and illustrate each.

10. State the difference between the logical predicate and the grammatical predicate, and illustrate each.

EXERCISES UNDER CHAPTER I.

Name the following sentences, according to Section CCCCLXXVI.:

"He loves his country."

"Will he visit Palestine ?"

"Life is short, and art is long." "He spoke with energy." "Be faithful unto death." "If he should arrive in time." "What converse passed between us two in all those shadowy solitudes !" Point out first the Propositions, next the Logical Subject and Predicate, and then the Grammatical Subject and Predicate in each of the following sentences:

1. The Christian ministry is the worst of all trades, but the best of all professions. MODEL a. Here are two propositions. The Christian ministry is the Logical Subject of each proposition, expressed or understood. The worst of all trades is the Logical Predicate of the first, and the best of all professions is the Logical Predicate of the second. The Grammatical Subject of the two propositions is the ministry; and the Grammatical Predicate of the first is the worst, and of the second is the best.

2. Good-nature, like a bee, collects honey from every herb. Ill-nature, like a spider, sucks poison from the sweetest flower.

MODEL 6. Here Good-nature, like a bee, is the Logical Subject of the first proposition,

and collects honey from every herb is the Logical Predicate; it being understood that the verb collect is equivalent to is collecting, is being the copula. The Logical Subject of the second proposition is Ill-nature, like the spider, and the Logical Predicate is collects: is collecting poisons from the sweetest flowers. The Grammatical Subject of the first is Good-nature, and the Grammatical Predicate is collects. The Grammatical Subject of the second is Ill-nature, and the Grammatical Predicate is sucks. The copula is not regarded in Syntax.

3. The intellect of the wise is like glass; it admits the light of heaven, and reflects it.

4. A speech being a matter of adaptation, and having to win opinions, should contain a little for the few, and a great deal for the many.

5. The virtue of paganism was strength; the virtue of Christianity is obedience. Give names and definitions of the following Figures in Syntax:

1. Who stabs my name would stab my person too,

Did not the hangman's axe lie in his way.

2. His genteel and agreeable manners have made him a universal favourite of everybody.

3.

The hollow sound

Sung in the leaves, the forest shook around,

Air blackened, rolled the thunder, groaned the ground.

4. When first thy sire, to send on earth

Virtue, his darling child, designed.

5. In descending the hill, he gave the reins to his horse and his fury.' 6. Last Whitsuntide he was well and alive.

7. The skipping king-he ambled up and down.

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SYNTAX OF THE SUBSTANTIVE.

SECTION CCCCLXXXI.-NOMINATIVE CASE.

RULE I.-A Noun used either as the SUBJECT or the PREDICATE of a finite verb is in the Nominative Case; as, "Man reasons;" "he is the architect of his own character." Here man is the Subject of the verb reasons, and is in the nominative case; and architect is the Predicate of the verb is, and is in the nominative case.

The leading rules under the noun apply also to Pronouns. What is peculiar to the Pronoun is given under the rules for the Pronoun. The words Subject and Predicate, without a qualifying epithet, are, in Syntax, used in the Grammatical sense, though the Logical sense is the primary one.

Note I.—A Noun with a Participle, used Independently of the Grammatical construction into which it logically enters, is in the nominative case; as, "He being dead, we shall live;""the king having arrived, the soldiers were drawn up in battle array.' This is called the nominative absolute, because the case depends on no other word. Its logical meaning is as evident as if the syntactical construction were such that the case be made to depend on some other word.

a. Originally, in the Anglo-Saxon, nouns thus standing Independently or absolutely were in the dative; as, Up a sprungenre sunnan = the sun having arisen. Him, also, in the Anglo-Saxon, was in the dative. This would seem to justify the phraseology in

Milton, " And him destroyed, or won to what may work his utter loss." In other cases, Milton conformed to the rule just given; as, "Whose gray top shall tremble, he descending."

b. A noun and a participle thus used in the nominative absolute form is an abridged sentence, and may be introduced into the general construction by the proper conjunction or adverb; as, "The two armies being thus employed, Cælius began to publish several violent and odious laws." The nominative absolute in this sentence can be resolved into the following Grammatical equivalent: "While the two armies were thus employed, Cælius began to publish several violent and odious laws."

Note II. A Noun used in Direct Address is in the nominative case; as, “O Judg. ment, thou art fled to brutish beasts!" "John, come hither." This last example is equivalent to the vocative case in the Latin language.

Note III-A Nominative without its intended Verb sometimes occurs in a certain abrupt mode of writing; as, "These men-how I detest them!" The first words, being the subject of discourse, when uttered, awaken such strong feeling in the mind of the speaker, that he quits the trammels of a formal arrangement, and leaves the nominative without a verb. This mode of writing was formerly more common than it is now, as in the following stanza :

"They routed, drank, and merry made,
Till all his gold it waxed thin;
And then his friends they slunk away,

And left the unthrifty heir of Linne."

In expressions like the following there is a Pleonasm: "Your fathers, where are they? and the prophets, do they live for ever?" "Bad men they often honour virtue at the bottom of their heart." Superfluous nominatives should be avoided in common language.

Expressions like the following are not to be encouraged, though there are authorities in their favour: "It is really curious the course which balls will sometimes take." Note IV.--A Noun in the nominative without a verb is sometimes found in Exclamatory sentences: "But, oh their end, their dreadful end!"

"A steed! a steed of matchless speed,

A sword of metal keene!

All else to noble hearts is drosse,

All else on earth is meane."

Here the mind, for the moment, is so absorbed in the object that it simply utters the term, without making an assertion respecting it.

Note V.-Nouns used as Titles of Books, and Names of Places and of Persons, are very often in the nominative without a verb; as, "Chambers's Cyclopædia," ""Marlborough House." These expressions are elliptical.

Note VI.-In Poetry, a Noun in the nominative without a verb may sometimes be found, chiefly in those cases where the omitted verb would express an Address or Answer; as, "To whom thus Michael: Judge not what is best

By pleasure, though to nature seeming meet,
Created as thou art to nobler end."-MILTON.

Note VII.-A Noun in the nominative case without a verb is very frequently found in the Answer to a Question; as, "Who invented the electro-magnetic telegraph?" "Morse" (invented it). Here the ellipsis is supplied. "Who first drew lightning from the clouds?" "Franklin."

SECTION CCCCLXXXII.-COLLOCATION.

The Subject-nominative generally precedes, the Predicate-nominative generally follows the verb, as above. To this rule there are exceptions:

1. In Interrogative, Exclamatory, and Imperative sentences, the Subject-nominative follows the verb; as, "How many apples have (Sub.) you?" "What (Pred.) beautiful apples those are!" "Give (Sub.) thou those apples."

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