say it is said man sagt, German on dit, French. This is from the Old French hom om, and is not connected with the numeral, but is a dialectic variety with man itself, just as the French on dit grew out of the older phrase hom dit, that is, homo dicit. This word is so far substantival that it is inflected. Genitive singular, one's own self; plural, "My wife and little ones are well." Somebody, something; anybody, anything; everybody, everything; nobody, nothing, may be classed with the indeterminate pronouns.

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER V.

1. Give the two definitions of a pronoun, and the derivation of the term.

2. What is a personal pronoun? and a demonstrative pronoun ? and a relative pronoun? and an interrogative pronoun ? and an adjective pronoun? and an adverbial pronoun ?

3. Is the extent of pronouns the same in different languages?

4. What can you say of the importance and value of pronouns ?

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

5. What is a personal pronoun? How many are there? Mention them.

6. Why are personal pronouns so called?

7. Of what modifications do they admit?

8. What are masculine pronouns? what feminine? and what neuter?

9. Decline the personal pronoun.

10. What is said of the substitution of plurals for unity in the first person?

11. What is said of the substitution of plurals for unity in the second person? What word has its superseded?

12. What is said of the German usage?

SELF.

13. What office does the word self perform?

14. Has the English language any true reflective pronoun ?

15. What proof have you that self is used as a substantive, and in what several ways is it thus used?

16. In what instances is self used as an adjective?

17. In what cases is self emphatic?

18. What is said of own in this connection?

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

19. What is a demonstrative pronoun ?

20. Mention the demonstrative pronouns, and give examples of their use.

21. From what are this and that derived ?

22. Mention LATHAM's opinion as to what are demonstrative pronouns.

23. In the Indo-European stock of languages how is the demonstrative idea expressed?

24. In the Anglo-Saxon what is the form for these?

25. In the Anglo-Saxon what are the equivalents of those? and of they? and of them? and of their?

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

26. What is a relative pronoun, and what office does it perform?

27. Which are the relative pronouns ?

28. What is said ot who? also of which? and also of that? and also of what?

29. Decline who and which.

30. Does what admit of any variation?

31. Mention the several ways in which which is used; and in which what is used and in which that is used.

32. Mention the compound relatives, and state how they are formed.

33. State the distinction between the subjunctive pronouns and the prepositive pro

nouns.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

34. What is an interrogative pronoun ?

35. Which are the interrogative pronouns ?

36. State how who, which, what, and whether are used.

37. What is the difference between who and which in their application to persons? 38. In the Indo-European languages how is the relative idea expressed!

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

39. What is an adjective pronoun ?

40. State BUTTMAN's opinion on the subject.

41. What is a reciprocal pronoun, and which are the reciprocal pronouns ? 42. Mention the indeterminate pronouns.

43. Give examples of the use of man as an indeterminate pronoun; and of me; and of it; and of one.

CHAPTER VI.

THE VERB.

SECTION CCCXVII.

A SUBSTANTIVE VERB is a word that can form the copula of a proposition; as, "God is great." Here is forms the copula of the proposition, of which great is the predicate, and is by the definition a verb. See Section CCXL.

A COMMON or ADJECTIVE VERB is a word which can form both the copula and the predicate of a proposition; as, "The sun shines." Here shines, for grammatical purposes equivalent to is shining, forms both the copula and the predicate of the proposition, and is by the definition a verb. An adjective verb is one that contains in itself an attribute or a predicate.

"John

"Sugar is

Or, a Verb is a word which expresses an assertion; as, reads." Here the act of reading is asserted of John. sweet." Here the quality of sweetness is asserted of sugar.

As the verb essentially expresses assertion, without which there could be no communication of thought, it was regarded by the ancient grammarians as the very soul of a sentence, and called verbum =the word. The verb, the verb only, predicates. The Chinese call verbs live words, nouns dead words.

SECTION CCCXVIII.- -BECKER'S VIEWS.

According to BECKER, all notions expressed by language are either notions of activity or notions of existence. The notion of activity is expressed by a verb when the activity is contemplated as bearing on the relations of person, time, and mode to the speaker; as, He drank; he fled; the tree grows. It is expressed by an adjec tive when it is not thus related to the speaker; as, A drunken man; a flighty thought; a great tree. The notion of existence is expressed by a substantive; as, A drinker; a flock; the growth.

In favour of this view may be argued :

1. That most verbs actually express action in the ordinary or colloquial sense of that term.

2. That verbs now apparently expressing rest or inaction originally

denoted action; thus, standing was conceived of as a rising up; reposing as a putting one's self down.

3. That every verb, in a philosophical view, whether looked at physically or metaphysically, expresses motion or action.

4. That this definition of a verb forms a good contrast to that of the substantive, as expressing mere existence.

Verbs are, in point of signification, either Notional Verbs or Relational Verbs.

All verbs are notional words except auxiliary verbs, which are relational. These latter verbs express only time, or modality, or the passive voice of a notional verb, which is then termed the principal. See Section CCCXLI.

SECTION CCCXIX.-CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS.

I. Those of the ANCIENT or STRONG Conjugation, commonly called Irregular. See Section CCCXLVIII.

II. Those of the MODERN or WEAK Conjugation, commonly called Regular. See Section CCCLIV.

Verbs have also been divided into Principal and Auxiliary Verbs, Substantive and Adjective Verbs, Primitive and Derived Verbs. There are also Reflective, Defective, and Impersonal Verbs.

Verbs are divided into two classes, according to their uses:— I. TRANSITIVE. II. INTRANSITIVE. Many verbs are sometimes transitive and sometimes intransitive.

SECTION CCCXX.-TRANSITIVE VERBS.

Verbs are called TRANSITIVE if their motion or idea is incomplete without the complementary notion of an object; as, "He struck." Here the meaning of struck is incomplete, for it has no object.

1. Transitive Verbs express an assertion in two forms, called the ACTIVE VOICE and the PASSIVE VOICE.

"He struck the

2. The term transitive signifies passing over. boy." Here something is supposed to pass over from the subject to the object. The verb struck is a transitive verb in the active form. "The boy was struck by him." Here the same affirmation is expressed in the passive form. The object of the verb in the former case is the subject in this.

3. The object of a transitive verb is always its complement, which, if not expressed by the speaker or the writer, is supplied by the hearer or the reader from the connection.

4. The subject of a transitive verb is sometimes its complement; as, "He struck himself."

SECTION CCCXXI.-INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

Verbs are called INTRANSITIVE if their notion or idea is complete without the aid of any complementary notion; as, "He sleeps." Here the meaning of sleeps is complete. It is confined to the subject; it needs no object.

1. The term intransitive means not passing over. Here the act of running is limited to the subject.

"He runs."

2. Intransitive verbs, from their nature, cannot regularly be used in the passive form.

3. Some verbs are used sometimes in a transitive, and sometimes in an intransitive sense; as Range, to place in order; and Range, to roam at large.

or

4. An intransitive verb can be defined as one which expresses simply being; as, "I am :" or state of being; as, " He sleeps:" action limited to the agent; as, "He runs."

SECTION CCCXXII.-THE ATTRIBUTES OF VERBS.

To verbs belong PERSON, NUMBER, TENSE, MODE, and VOICE. The forms of conjugation are, voices, for the relation of the action of the verb to the subject; modes, for the relation of reality, whether existing, conceived of, or willed by the speaker; tenses, for the relation of time; numbers and persons, to show the number and person of the subject, corresponding with the numbers and persons of personal pronouns.

SECTION CCCXXIII.-THE PERSONS OF VERRS.

Verbs have three persons, FIRST, SECOND, and THIRD, corresponding to the threefold distinction in personal pronouns. Nouns are naturally of the third person.

Compared with the Latin, the Greek, the Sanscrit, the MoesoGothic, and almost all the ancient languages, there is in English only a very slight amount of inflection.

First Person.

Present Tense, Indicative Mode.

Singular, Voc-o,
Plural, Voc-amus,

Singular, Lufige,
Plural, Lufiað,

Singular, Love,
Plural, Loven,

Singular, Love,

loveth or loves.

love.

persons

Plural, Love,

lovest,
love,

1. Here we see six different terminations in the three

the two numbers of the Latin

of

2. a. We also see the Anglo-Saxon addition of t in the second person singular; b. The identity in the form of the three persons of the plural number in that language; c. The change of as into en in the Old English plural; d. The total absence of plural forms in the Modern English; e. The change of th into s in loveth and

loves.

3. The sign of the first person singular is found in one verb only. In the word am (a-m) the m is no part of the original word. It is the sign of the first person singular of the present indicative.

4. The sign of the second person singular is est or st; as, Thou callest.

5. The sign of the third person singular is eth or th, or else es or s; as, He calleth, he loveth; or, He calls, he loves. The first of these forms is now used only in formal discourse. It was once in It is found only in the indicative mode and the pre

common use.

sent tense.

6. Through the whole of the plural there are no signs of the persons, or change of form: We call, ye call, they call.

SECTION CCCXXIV.-NUMBERS OF VERBS.

Verbs have two numbers, the SINGULAR and the PLURAL, corresponding to the twofold distinction in personal pronouns.

As compared with the present plural forms, we love, ye love, they love, both the Anglo-Saxon we lufias, ge lufias, he lufias, and the Old English we loven, ye loven, they loven, have a peculiar termination for the plural number, which the present language wants. In other words, the Anglo-Saxon and the Old English have a plural personal characteristic, while the Modern English has nothing to correspond with it. And this is the case in all the Gothic languages, as well as in the Anglo-Saxon.

MESO-GOTHIC.

Skáin, I shone; skinum, we shone: Gab, I gave; gêbum, we gave.
Smáit, I smote; smitum, we smote: Láug, I lied; lugum, we lied.

ANGLO-SAXON.

Arn, Iran; urnon, we run: Sang, I sang; sungon, we sung.

Span, I span; spunnon, we spun: Drank, I drank; drunkon, we drunk. From these examples the reader cannot fail to draw the inference, viz., that words like

generally called double forms of the preterit, were originally different numbers of the same tense, the form in u being plural. The second person singular generally has the same vowel as the plural: Ic sang, I sang; pu sunge, thou sungest; He sang, he sang; We sungon, we sung; Ge sungon, ye sung; Hi sungon, they sung.

The signs of the persons, m, st or est, eth or s, are, in a secondary sense, the signs of number, since they are found only in the singular. But the only real sign expressive of a difference of number occurs in the past tense of the indicative mode of the verb substantive: I was, thou wast, he was; We were, ye were, they were.

SECTION CCCXXV.--TENSES OF THE VERB.

TENSE is a form of the verb used to express the relation of time; 31 [ENG. LANG. 13.]