obtained permission for his brother to attend at the Chelsea Hospital, under Cheselden, who was thus John Hunter's first teacher in surgery. In 1751, he entered as a surgeon's pupil at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, under Pott; in 1754, he entered St. George's Hospital as a surgeon's pupil; and two years later he served in the office of house-surgeon to this hospital. At this time he entered as a partner with his brother in the anatomical school, and a portion of the lectures was allotted to him; he had also to take his brother's place when he was absent. From the year 1759 to 1763 he served as a staff-surgeon in the army.

He then settled down in London, prosecuted his researches in anatomy and physiology, and delivered lectures on anatomy and surgery. In 1776, Hunter was appointed surgeon-extraordinary to the King. After a life of incessant research, toil in lecturing, in private practice, and in collecting his museum, he died suddenly on the 16th of October, 1793. His life has been written by Ottley, from whom I shall give a few brief quotations :-"Boldness and independence in the pursuit of truth, one of the striking characteristics of Hunter's mind, was well exhibited in his lectures. attached no value to opinions, except they could be shown to be firmly based on fact. Fallacious reasoning he quickly saw through, and instantly demolished; while he was not more indulgent towards his own theories when he discovered them to be erroneous.

He

"In forming an estimate of Hunter's professional character, and the influence which his labours have had on the improvement of surgery, we are not, as with ordinary minds, simply to enumerate the various practical amendments of which he was the immediate author. His claims are of a far higher nature; and inasmuch as he was the first who taught us to bring the lights of physiology to bear upon the practice of our art, and by his writings, his teaching, and his example stimulated the minds of numerous able followers to pursue the tract he had pointed out, he justly merits to be considered as the author of a new era in the history of our profession.

"In the character of a naturalist it is impossible for us to form a full estimate of Hunter's labours, either from his published works or from his incomparable museum as it at present stands. In the course of the numberless dissections which he prosecuted during thirty years of unwearied diligence he necessarily made a great variety of isolated observations, which, though not immediately applicable to the objects he had in view, would doubtless have constituted important contri

butions to the general stock of knowledge in comparative anatomy. Such observations he always recorded carefully in appropriate volumes; but by Sir Everard Home's extraordinary destruction of his manuscripts, science has been deprived of these fruits of his industry, of which scarcely the smallest portion now remains in existence. But even in such cases where the records of his researches have been preserved, either in the form of preparations or by means of drawings forming part of his museum, the want of descriptive catalogues has often caused them to be overlooked, whilst more modern naturalists have been reaping the honour of discoveries which were due in the first place to Hunter.

Nevertheless, though we cannot estimate the full extent of his labours, enough remains to entitle him to a place in the highest rank as a natural philosopher." 28

A good edition of Hunter's works, in four volumes, edited with notes by Mr. James F. Palmer, and illustrated by a volume of plates, in quarto, was published in 1835-37. John Hunter was probably the greatest physiologist that Britain has produced, taking into account the extensive series of preparations contained in his museum and his writings. In reference to comparative anatomy Richard Owen said in 1837: "It appears to me that he marks a new epoch in its history, and that the historian of the natural sciences has just and sufficient grounds for regarding Hunter as the first of the moderns who treated of the organs of the animal body under their most general relations, and who pointed out the anatomical conditions which were characteristic of great groups or classes of animals; as one, in short, throughout whose works we meet with general propositions in comparative anatomy, the like of which exists not in the writing of any of his contemporaries or predecessors, save in those of Aristotle." 29

In conclusion, the rise and progress of medical science in Scotland has been narrated in sufficient detail to indicate what she has contributed to this branch of knowledge; while the gradual development of the three centres or schools of medicine has been shown. The great work for medical science in the future will be sanitary progress and hospital organisation; in short, the exercise of medical knowledge and skill to prevent disease of every description.

28 Hunter's Works, Vol. I., pp. 48, 135-136.

29 Preface to Hunter's Treatise on the Animal Economy, Hunter's Works, Vol. IV., p. 11.

A

CHAPTER XLVI.

Progress of Education in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.

N account of the rise and progress of primary education in Scotland, and of the act of the Scottish parliament of 1696, which enforced the parish school system, was given in the preceding volumes; and that system continued with little variation through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries till the introduction of the new Education Act in 1873, which placed the management and organisation of primary schools upon a different footing. There is little of national importance concerning the parish schools to record in the eighteenth century. But it should be specially observed, that even in the seventeenth century the general intelligence of the Scotch people was in advance of the surrounding conditions of their material civilisation; in other words, their moral and intellectual faculties were further developed and organised than their practical knowledge of the mechanical and industrial arts of life. This interesting social phenomenon became distinctly manifest before the end of the seventeenth century, as was shown in the last volume; and, by the middle of the eighteenth century, when the internal peace and order of the country became more assured, then the results of the previous moral and intellectual training of the nation appeared in every direction. Thus it was that Scotland started on a career of progress which has not only changed the face of the country, but also contributed to advance the industry of the civilised world, as has been indicated in this volume.

In the Highlands of Scotland, the old parish school system was ineffective, owing to various circumstances: (1). Some of the parishes were so large and the inhabitants so thinly spread over them that regular attendance at the school was impracticable; (2). No means were provided for teaching the Celtic boys and girls through their own language. Thus, when they entered the school, though they did not know a word of the English language, yet teachers of the schools usually spoke nothing but English, and taught from books entirely in English; so Highland boys had to learn a foreign language without

the least assistance from their mother tongue. Efficient teaching by this method was out of the question.

In the burghs and towns much interest continued to be taken in the education of the young. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, in Glasgow, the children were usually sent to the English school at five or six years of age; at seven or eight they were sent to learn Latin in the Grammar School; and at eleven or twelve they were enrolled at the College.1 In the schools of other towns the age at which children entered was about the same as above.

The Government began to give annual grants in aid of education in 1834; the first grant amounted to £20,000, which continued till 1839, when the committee of the Privy Council on Education was instituted. Afterwards the annual grants were gradually increased; and from 1839 to the close of the year 1865, the total sum given to the primary schools of Scotland was £1,055,765, which was divided among the schools connected with the Established Church, with the Free Church, the Episcopal Church, and the Roman Catholic Church. These grants were made conditional on a certain amount of local subscriptions being raised, and the operation of this was extremely unsatisfactory; for the localities most in need of assistance seldom got it the crowded districts in large towns, and the thinly-peopled rural districts unable to raise the required quota of local funds, got none of the grant. The result was that those least in want of Government money got most of it, while those most in need of it rarely got any.

Shortly after Government grants began, Government Inspectors of Schools were introduced into Scotland. At first there were only a few, but they multiplied rapidly. In 1864 there were ten Government Inspectors of Schools; six for the schools connected with the Established Church, three for the Free Church schools, and one for the schools of the Episcopal Church. In 1867 they had increased to thirteen; but, since the introduction of the new Education Act in 1873, the institution of Government Inspectors has rapidly developed. In 1879, there were upwards of forty Inspectors of Schools in Scotland, while at present there are over one hundred on this side of the Tweed.

The Free Church, for many years after the Disruption, gave a marked impetus to the development of education in Scotland. From 1843 onwards for a quarter of a century, a large number of Free

1 Macgregor's History of Glasgow, p. 361.

Church schools were erected throughout the country. In 1862, she had three hundred and seventy-seven certificated male teachers, one hundred and eleven certificated female teachers, five hundred and ninety-four male pupil teachers, and two hundred female; while at this date the number of teachers in the schools connected with the Established Church was six hundred and thirty-two certificated male teachers, two hundred and fifty certificated female teachers, eight hundred and ninety male pupil teachers, and three hundred and eighty-five female. In 1865, the number of male certificated teachers actually employed in teaching in the Free Church schools was four hundred and forty-two, and twenty-three assistant teachers, one hundred and forty-five certificated female teachers, three hundred and eighty-one male pupil teachers, and one hundred and seventytwo female. At the same time in the Church of Scotland schools there were eight hundred and forty male certificated teachers actually employed in teaching, three hundred and fifty-one certificated female teachers, seven hundred and twenty-seven male pupil teachers, and three hundred and fifty female. Moreover, the Free Church has erected normal schools and colleges of her own; and thus she has contributed to advance education in Scotland.

Since the introduction of the Education Act in 1873, many excellent new schools have been built throughout the country. The enforcement of the compulsory clause of the Act has been rendered more practicable since the abolition of fees in the primary schools. In recent years, also, there has been some improvement in the method of teaching. In the year 1893-94, the money expended on education in Scotland amounted to one million and a half pounds, of which about one half came from the Imperial Exchequer, and the other from local rates.

Sabbath schools began to be formed in Scotland about the beginning of the present century, and within recent years they have been greatly developed. Each body of Christians has their own system or organisation of these schools, while there are a number of Sabbath schools in which all denominations are welcomed, and freely taught without distinction.

Reformatory schools began to be certified by Government in Scotland about the middle of the present century; and industrial and ragged schools began to be certified about the same period. Both classes of these have been established in the large towns of Scotland for a considerable number of years; as to whether they have