or at least to the subjective sort of structures a tergo with which McDougall's biological prepossessions constrain him to deal. The standpoint he reaches is the purely technological one of the outsider, for which structure is everywhere prior to function. The question at issue is the fundamental one of whether the conscious is part of the unconscious or the reverse. If we adopt the former alternative and make structure prior to function we are inevitably committed to mechanism however much we talk about purpose and distinguish instincts from reflexes. In any case it is clear that the distinction of mechanical processes from purposive is wrong. It sins against the author's basic distinction of structure and function. We should speak rather of processes whose purpose is apparent and those whose purpose is not.

The only possible "purposive" account of individuality is that, Indicated by Kant, which exhibits man as a being who can only be under stood as an end in himself and not as a means. Natural individuality is the regation of this. It seems that to get a "scientific" psychology we must rule out the infinity, community and continuity of mental life. Here as elsewhere, Push and Go means in practice Push and Stop. -W. Anderson.

DIFFICULTIES. By Seymour Hicks. First Australian edition, Angus and Robertson. 1924. Pp. 272. Price 4/6.

"Difficulties," the author explains, is a more elaborate version of a previous little book entitled "If I Were Your Father," and is described as "an endeavour to be of some use to young men going into the world, who, as a rule, are left to find out for themselves things which have brought them to a cure, when a word might have helped them to prevention."

The motive is excellent, and Mr. Seymour Hicks proceeds in unconventional, confidential style, to talk as a man of the world to young men, on the snares and pitfalls that beset the path of youth. The appeal is not to the loftiest motives, but to "faith in the commonsense which is yours." The book is racily written and contain's some good advice expressed in colloquial language, on such subjects as “Leaving Home," "Yourself," "Your Friends," "Gambling," "Drink," "Sex," etc. The first two most important, crucial subjects of which the author treats are "Religion" and "Sex." Speaking on the first of these, he warns the young against routine. "It is far better to think a short prayer in the street, than to murmur a long epistle unthinkingly in the church"; and “if you worship God, it doesn't matter whether you are a member of the Church of England, the Church of Rome, a hard-shelled Baptist, or of any faith." Don't laugh at the Bible "as a set of fairy tales, and don't listen without protest "to any who thus speak of it; and don't forget a little prayer of thanksgiving to your Maker at night." Don't "kick God out of your house," ans, which we faith in another life and the real presence of the departed whts and plarted on

a fresh youth. There is no such place as Hell. Sin is paid for twice over before we die. But when you "board the train" you may find, as the result of your follies, that your arrival is "delayed." To be without religious belief is inconceivable.

On sexual dangers and marriage, some sound advice is proffered, but some counsel also is offered as to the safe gratification of sexual passions which will certainly not commend itself ever to some young men or middle-aged women. The horrors of sexual disease descending to children's children, are rightly described, and the adoption of measures for its prevention and cure is urged. The writer has sounded the depth of infamy, and warnings as to "Blackmail," and traps set by designing men and women are very plainly given.

It may be doubted, however, whether these familiar talks with young men will persuade many to follow the author's well-meant advice. A real reformation of morals must have a deeper foundation in the family life, in the schools, and in economic changes which will cut the roots of wasteful luxury, idle wealth, gambling, and drunkenness, and promote early marriage and a social life worthy of human beings. The best of talk must be largely in vain so long as the necessary conditions of "a sober, righteous, and godly life" are disregarded and a low, selfish, and materialistic ideal dominates society. In neither of his analyses of the questions of Religion or Sex does the author rise above the level of the man in the street. There is no appeal to the higher nature of chivalrous, "generous youth," or to unselfish sense of responsibility as a man and a brother, and prospective parent. We cannot help feeling that this omission is a blot on the book.

-Charles Strong.

EINLEITUNG IN DIE MENGENLEHRE. By A. Fraenkel. 2 Aufl. 1923. Die Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften in Einzeldarstellungen. Bd. IX. (Springer, Berlin).

Much good work is being done in Germany in mathematics at the present time. The Mathematische Zeitshrift, founded in 1918, has already become one of the most important mathematical journals. Another evidence of activity is the series of text books of which this book forms the ninth volume. Edited by Courant of Göttingen, with the co-operation of his colleagues Runge and Born, and Blaschke of Hamburg, the appearance of its volumes is looked forward to by all Mathematicians; for the school of mathematics at Göttingen has a world-wide reputation. The author of this work (now a professor of mathematics at Marburg), served in the German army during the war. To pass the time in camp, he discussed with his comrades, nonmathematicians, the ideas which form the foundation of the theory of sets (the mathematician usually says sets of points). From these discussions this book arose. It was written in camp; and from the field it was sent to the press. It attempts to put the theory within the reach of the man in the street. It has defects arising from the circumstances

in which it was written, as well as corresponding advantages. But the author is to be congratulated on the extent to which he has been able to carry out his purpose.

One defect is the lack of adequate references to the literature of the subject. This the author himself recognises; but it seems a pity that more has not been done to remedy it, while revising and adding to the book for this new edition, which is meant to appeal to a wider public, and also to serve a purpose not originally proposed. The reader might well imagine that all the most important contributions to the subject had been made, and were still being made, in Germany. But the book also benefits from the way in which it arose. The men to whom the talks were given were not mathematicians. They were, we may suppose, mostly young men who in happier times would have passed from the Gymnasium to the University, institutions, both of which, occupy so notable a place in the life of Germany. It is a commonplace that, when we allow the infinitely great to enter into the argument (and the same is true of the infinitesimally small, witness the disputes of mathematicians and philosophers about the Infinitesi mal Calculus in the 17th and 18th centuries) paradoxes follow, unless the path is suitably hedged by definitions and axioms. The theory of sets deals with aggregates containing an infinite number of elements. Its founder was Georg Cantor (1845-1918). The positive integers form such a set. The whole is not greater than the part, for there is a oneone correspondence between the set of positive integers and the set of even positive integers. In a sense there are as many even positive integers as even and odd positive integers. Again, take a triangle A B C with B C as base, and D E the middle points of the sides A B and A C. The line D E is parallel to B C and equal to half of B C. To every point P on D E there is a corresponding point Q on B C got by producing A P to cut B C in Q. We may thus say that there are as many points in D E as in a line double its size. Such are the paradoxes referred to above. To remove them clear thinking is required, and in the theory of sets such thinking is to be found. This theory has much to say about the idea of number, about the ordinal and cardinal numbers, about new numbers not dreamt of before its creation, e.g. the transfinite numbers. It is fundamental both in mathematics and in mathematical philosophy.

The mathematician will probably say that this would have been a better book if it had been more mathematical. The man in the street, even though he possess the qualifications the author demands, an interest in the infinite, and patience to follow step by step the somewhat abstract line of thought with which he deals, will no doubt say there is more mathematics in it than he wishes. It may be that for the philosopher there is just the proper amount. At any rate the first edition was rapidly exhausted in Germany, and I imagine its readers were mostly non-mathematicians; for the professional mathematician has other works on the subject more suited to his needs. But the fact that the new edition has been given a place in the series

313 of Göttingen treatises shows that the work has also been found useful by mathematicians: and it can certainly be recommended as a valuable introduction to an important and difficult subject.

ENQUÊTE SUR LES

-H. S. Carslaw.

LIVRES SCOLAIRES D'APRÈS-GUERRE.

DOTATION CARNEGIE. Paris. 1923. 420 pp.

Cette étude de l'esprit scolaire d'après-guerre se recommande par des qualités de méthode patiente et précise, et par l'impartialité qui a présidé à sâ compilation. La largeur d'esprit dont elle témoigne sera mise en lumière par la présence, au nombre des collaborateurs, des Professeurs Brocklaus (Vienne) et Ivanoff (Sofia).

Les auteurs ont lu et analysé environ 370 volumes, choisis parmi ceux qui sont les plus courants pour l'enseignement de l'histoire et de la morale civique, en Allemagne, en Angleterre, en Autriche, en Belgique, en Bulgarie, et en France. On regrette l'absence des Etats-Unis et du Japon. L'idée qui se dégage de ces études, c'est que, à de très rares exceptions près, "la démobilisation des esprits n'a pas suivi la démobilisation des armées"*) et que "l'école, qui devrait enseigner la vérité aux enfants, se contente souvent de leur enseigner la haine.”†

On trouve dans ces pages des renseignements fort intéressants sur l'enseignement public en Europe, et particullièrement sur la Réforme de l'enseignement en Allemagne, par l'application de l'Article 148 de la Constitution de Weimar. La facon dont cet article est appliqué laisse quelques doutes sur l'application des autres articles.

L'Allemagne n'est pas la seule en cause. Certaines "histoires morales" à l'usage de la jeunesse des Ecoles francaise sont de douloureux exemples de l'absurdité de certains maîtres d'ecole: Telle est l'histoire héroique du jeune patriote qui détruit à coups de marteau son chemin de fer mécanique, en découvrant qu'il est "made in Germany."

Doit-on enseigner aux élèves l'histoire de la Grande Guerre? Il serait inutile et peut-être dangereux de discuter ici cette question, car chacun a sur ce sujet des idees définies, et l'enseignement d'état, dans trop de pays, s'inspire plutôt de l'opinion des majorités parlementaires que des nécessités pédagogiques.

Cette dernière constatation, après tout, est de nature à consoler le philosophe, sinon le pacifiste. Le mal, quel qu'il soit, produit par un programme issu d'une Chambre réactionnaire sera suivi du mal contraire, dû au nouveau programme d'un gouvernement socialiste, et les enfants, devenus hommes, finiront, sôus l'influence nouvelle de l'Université, de l'atelier, ou de leur journal quotidien, par se former une opinion nouvelle toute différente de celle que l'école aura cherché â leur imposer, à moins qu'ils ne conservent l'opinion de leur père ou de leur curé, ou qu'ils ne continuent à vivre sans aucune espèce d'opinion, ce qui est tout-a-fait possible, et parfaitement indifférent á Sirius.

R. A. F. Andraud.

formule de H. Lichtenberger, citee par M. Prudhommeaux. †M. Prudhommeaux.

JOURNALS RECEIVED.

THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY. Edited by Professors Woodbridge and Bush, Columbia University. Published fortnightly. Four dollars per annum.

Vol. XXI. No. 14. July 3. Some Meanings of the Word "Is": G. Santayana. No. 15. July 17. Scientific Thought and Reality: H. C. Brown. No. 16. July 31. A Forgotten Service of Kant: M. C. Otto. Congrès International d'Histoire des Religions: S. P. Lamprecht. No. 17. August 14. Mental Development: F. J. E. Woodbridge. No. 18. August 28. A Monism of Creative Behaviour: O. L. Reiser. Towards Realistic Psychology: L. A. Reid. No. 19. Sept. 11. Ontological Argument Redivivus: Scott Buchanan. R. M. Blake, Sceptic: C. J. Ducasse. No. 20. Sept. 25. "More Things in Heaven and Earth": H. S. Parkhurst. Work as an Ethical Concept: T. V. Smith. ARCHIVES DE PSYCHOLOGIE. Edited by Ed. Claparède. Geneva. No. 73. February, 1924. (London, Williams and Norgate). Les Souvenirs Irréels: Pierre Janet. Les Centres Psychiques Sous-carticaux: F. Naville. L'Effet Dynamique des Sensations de Couleurs chez quelques Animaux: J. A. Bierens de Haan.

NOTES AND NEWS.

The Third General Meeting of the Australasian Association of Psychology and Philosophy will be held in Sydney University, in May, 1925. The Presidential Address will be delivered by Professor W. R. Boyce Gibson, Professor of Philosophy, University of Melbourne. Full details of the meeting will be published in the March number of the Journal.

At the fourth and fifth meetings of the Sydney Branch of the Association, papers were read on Psychology and Aesthetics, by Miss D. M. Rivett, M.A. (14th August), and on Personality Systems by Dr. A. H. Martin (9th October).

The following papers have been read at the monthly meetings of the Melbourne University Philosophical Society during the past year:The Philosophy of Bergson, by Dr. S. C. Lazarus; Behaviouristic Psychology, by W. M. Ball; The Reality of Time, by Professor Gunn; The Concept of Intelligence in Modern Psychology, by K. S. Cunningham; The Psychology of Beauty, by G. Anderson; Symposium on the Ethics of William McDougall.

The American Philosophical Association has been authorised by the Permanent International Committee to convene the next International Congress of Philosophy in the United States. The Congress will be held during the second week of September, 1926, at one of the Eastern Universities. Fuller announcement will be made later, and invitations issued. Meanwhile, enquiries and correspondence may be addressed to the Corresponding Secretary, Professor J. J. Coss, Columbia University, New York.