suit of beauty; the temper it had produced was irreligious without being anti-religious, and curious, observant, and critical, without being constructive. 'Men,' he says, 'lived and learned and enjoyed their lives; of course the Church and its services were part of general culture, and were accepted as such. Few thought of attacking, and few aspired to reform them. Churchmen in Italy were as much affected by the new movement as were laymen. The new learning was patronised by Popes, Cardinals, and Bishops, and influenced all classes of society alike. There was everywhere an atmosphere of cultivated toleration; if a man professed oldfashioned piety as a rule of life, he was free to pursue it; if not, he might enjoy himself at his ease and think what he liked.' Thus, what Italy gained was not so much a system or a method as a mental attitude, which, when transplanted, assumed different shapes and produced different types of thought and different views of life. The first country into which the Italian impulse was admitted was Germany, but in admitting the impulse Germany did not absorb the Italian spirit. As Dr. Creighton points out, The new learning won its way gradually through students, teachers, and universities; it was not carried home to the minds of the people by a great outburst of art and architecture, by the pomp and pageantry of princely and municipal life, such as dazzled the eyes of the Italians. It came from above, and won its way by conflict with old institutions and old modes of thought. The result was that it wore from the beginning the appearance of a reforming and progressive system, which proposed new modes of teaching and criticised existing methods.' 'Moreover,' Dr. Creighton continues, in Germany there had been a quiet but steady current of conservative reform in ecclesiastical matters, which had created an amount of seriousness not to be found in Italy, and was too powerful to be neglected by the leaders of a new movement.' There had been a continuous attempt to deal by personal perseverance with acknowledged evils, and a succession of men who in their own ways laboured to heighten the religious and social life of the people. With these men the new learning had to reckon. At first it wore the aspect of an aid to their endeavours, and was valued by them as suggesting a method. The consequence was that between the Italian and German points of view there was a wide difference a breach which neither party clearly recognised, and which prevented them from understanding each other when the crisis came. Geiger, we believe, was the first to point out this distinction. Great and deserved prominence is here given to it. It may be said, indeed, to furnish the key-note to the volume. Among the early leaders of German Humanism Dr. Creighton enumerates Johann Wessel, Nicholas Cusa, Rudolf Agricola, Sebastian Brant, Conrad Peutinger, Wilibald Pirkheimer, Conrad Celtes, and Conrad Mutianus Rufus, and incidentally refers to the effect which the new learning had upon the Universities of Germany. The second chapter deals with the Reuchlin controversy. The Epistola Obscurorum Virorum receive considerable attention. With respect to their authorship, the opinion followed is that of Strauss, who assigns the first book chiefly to Crotus Rubianus, and the second book, with the additions to the 1516 edition of the first book, to Ulrich von Hutten. Of Luther, who first appears in the third chapter of the volume, Dr. Creighton is not an indiscriminate admirer. On the other hand, he is far from exonerating Cajetan from blame. Speaking of his interviews with the Reformer towards the end of 1518, he says, they ought to have taught him that he was dealing with no ordinary man; that Luther had a powerful nature which was bound to find utterance; that he had a genius for the expression of religious sentiment; that he was not an Academician defending a thesis, but a teacher with a profound sense of the responsibility of

6

his task. It is true that a trained theologian might discern in Luther dangerous tendencies of which he himself was not conscious, but that foresight should have impressed him with the need of caution. It was not that Luther had no wish to rebel, but was not to be reduced to silence by the mere command of authority. Friendly mediation had induced him to admit that in some things he had spoken unadvisedly, and to promise silence for a time. If Cajetan had seized upon this concession, if even now he had expressed any sympathy, if he had given him an assurance of kindly consideration at the Papal Court, if he had tried still further to narrow the issue which had been raised, much might have been averted.' This, however, was what he failed to do. 'He was an official,' Dr. Creighton remarks, to whom obedience was the supreme duty, and as Luther refused to revoke his opinions as fully as he demanded, he would have no further dealings with him.' With respect to Luther's attitude towards the Peasants' War, Dr. Creighton is somewhat hesitating; nevertheless he admits that the language which Luther used on the occasion is 'startling,' that his impetuous temper carried him beyond all bounds,' and that he had no pity for his misguided followers.' The volume concludes with a chapter on the Sack of Rome. The Popes whose lives are narrated are, besides that of Leo X., Adrian VI., and Clement VII. Here and there throughout the volume we get passing but vivid glimpses of the literary and social movements of the time, and an Appendix is added, containing a number of important documents. From beginning to end the volume is of profound interest, and in many respects the most important of the series.

Les Premiers Habitants de l'Europe d'après les Ecrivains de l'Antiquité et les Travaux des Linguistes. Par H. D'ARBOIS DE JUBAINVILLE, Membre de l'Institut. Seconde Edition.

Tome II. Paris: Thorin & Fils. 1894.

In the first volume of this learned and remarkably instructive work, M. D'Arbois de Jubainville dealt first with the non-Indo-European races which inhabited Europe, and afterwards entered upon a discussion as to the various branches of the Aryan race which succeeded them. In the present volume the subject is still the members of the Indo-European family. Archæological discussions are here as in the first volume avoided, and the author confines himself to such evidence as is to be found in the writers of antiquity, and in the names of rivers, mountains, and places. Not the least interesting part of the volume, however, is the Preface, where M. D'Arbois de Jubainville sets himself to demolish the idea current among German as well as French writers, that moderu France is wholly descended from the Celts or Gauls who inhabited the country at the beginning of the Christian era, and of whom one hears so much in the writings of Cæsar and others. According to M. D'Arbois de Jubainville, the Gauls or Celts have not in all probability contributed so much as a twentieth part of the physical factors which enter into the structure of the Frenchman of to-day, while, when it is a question as to the intellectual sources whence the moral life of the nation has been derived, they ought scarcely to be counted. Other and less known peoples preceded them and were conquered by them, and it is from these rather than from the Celts that almost all the blood which runs in the veins of the French nation has been derived. The country now called France, says our author, has seen four civilisations succeed each other, and has been inhabited successively (1) by the Quaternary Man; (2) by the Cave men, ignorant of metals, but acquainted with the art of design; (3) by a population to whom the use

of the metals was known, who reared the megalithic monuments and buried their dead in the dolmens; (4) by a people yet more civilised, who practised cremation and deposited the ashes of their dead in urns which they buried under artificial mounds. The fifth to arrive were the Gauls or Celts. They came as conquerors and brought with them the practice of inhumation. To them succeeded a Roman period and then the French period. The Celtic period is the first of which the writers of antiquity give any detailed circumstances, and hence, as M. D'Arbois de Jubainville observes, it has appeared to those who undertake to narrate the events of that period that no other preceded it. This, however, he designates, and rightly, a delusion. Turning now to the text of the volume, our author first speaks of the Ligures, and chiefly by means of the Geographical names ending in such suffixes as asco, usco, osco, asca, ra, entia, antio, mina, traces them in most parts of modern France, in the basins of the Rhine, Weser, Elbe, and Danube, in the British Isles, in Italy, Corsica, and Spain. Next he deals with the Hellenes, the Italiotes, and lastly with the Celts. The language and nation of the Celts, he maintains, were found in the centre of what is now Germany, from whence issued the conquering armies which subdued the centre and west of Europe, establishing themselves in France, Spain, Great Britain, and Northern Italy. For a couple of centuries they seem to have possessed a sort of political unity which continued up to the end of the fourth century before the Christian era. During the period of their political unity they appear to have allied themselves with the Greeks, and to have united with them in war against the Carthagenians in Spain, the Etruscans in Italy, and the Illyrians in the basin of the Danube. Their wars were wars of aggression and brought them ultimately into collision with Rome. One chapter is devoted by our author to the relations between the Celts and the Germans prior to the third century B.C. Enough, however, has been said to show the extent and interest attaching to the researches which the author has made and to the results he has arrived at. These latter may not be always at once accepted, but coming from the hand of a writer of the great reputation which M. D'Arbois de Jubainville rightly enjoys, they unquestionably deserve the most careful study.

An Old Kirk Chronicle: Being a History of Auldhame, Tyninghame, and Whitekirk, in East Lothian, from Session Records, 1616-1850. By Rev. P. HATELY WADDELL, B.D., Minister of the United Parishes. William Blackwood & Sous:

Edinburgh and London. 1893.

The ecclesiastical documents of the country, thanks to the carelessness of their custodians and to the wear and tear of time, are not too numerous, and notwithstanding that a number of excellent volumes of these have been published, there is abundant room for the publication of more. For the history of the religious and social life of the country they are simply invaluable, and a wider and more careful study of them, while correcting many popular impressions respecting the past, would probably show that a number of others now firmly believed to be accurate, or assumed as such, are without real foundation. The United Parishes of Whitekirk and Tyninghame are fortunate in having a minister who knows the value of his Session Records, and believes that it is 'the duty of every parish minister, so far as it is possible, to collect or publish whatever may be historically or ecclesiastically interesting in his own parish, so as to leave a permanent record of what he and his people have inherited from the past.' Would that every parish minister in Scotland whose Kirk Session Records still

survive were of the same persuasion and had the same literary tact as the Rev. P. Hately Waddell. If they failed to give to the world any new or startling discovery, they might at least accumulate the material for forming larger and more accurate conceptions of the social and religious, if not of the political life of the country during the periods their Records cover. Mr. Waddell has made no startling discovery, nor has he added to our knowledge of what are called historical events,' though the drum and trumpet are now and again heard in his pages, as, for instance, when he writes about The Camp,' or tells us of the affectionate and solemn farewell which Mr. Johne Lauder, minister at Tyninghame, took of his flock when he 'was choisin to go to the camp in Ingland and perform Divine service and ministeriall dewtais to my Lord Humbies Regiment thair, for the space of of thre monthis.' But if he has not made any startling discovery, he has at least given us a very minute and graphic description of much that transpired in the parish of Tyninghame during the fifty and odd years the said Mr. John Lauder was minister there. It is to this clergyman, Mr. Johne,' as he is usually called, that Mr. Waddell is most indebted for the material he has used in writing his description. He died in 1662, and for the fifty and odd years during which he was minister at Tyninghame, he took the Session Records into his own hands and made them a sort of social history of the parish, noting down the progress of his own work together with his sorrows and difficulties, as well as the delinquencies and other incidents in the life of his parishioners. And a very excellent minister he seems to have been; strict, yet charitable, full of zeal for his office, sharing the sorrows and joys of his people, and often, when the Church treasury was exhausted-a not infrequent state of affairs-supplying their needs out of his own purse. As might be expected, Mr. Waddell has much to tell us of the Church life of the parish, and we hear a great deal about Church services, Church discipline, and Church customs. The jougs' are often mentioned, as also are the stocks; the 'reidar,' usually the schoolmaster, whose lot then, at least at Tyninghame, was not at all enviable, though apparently somewhat better than that of the clerk' or headle, is referred to again and again. Reference is made to the change effected in the order and character of public worship by the adoption in Scotland of the Westminster Directory of Worship. To the office-bearers of the Church Mr. Waddell devotes an extremely interesting chapter, and notices that here as elsewhere, at the time, one of the chief duties of the elders was the Sunday Sairching of the toune, each his day about,' during time of service, to see who were absent from the heiring of the Word.' The duty would seem to have been as ungrateful to the elders as to the defaulters. The minister had frequently to exhort them to its strict discharge. Happily, however, at least during Mr. Johne's' time, the 'sairching' appears to have had the desired result, as he makes the entry, The act anent poynding of absents by the officer, causit the pepll to come frequentlie to the kirk at efternoou.' Mr. Waddell has also much to tell of social customs, and here and there a word about superstitions. One of his sentences will be read by many with surprise. It is this: 'We find no superstition about marrying in May, marriages in that month are frequent.' Altogether this is an instructive and an interesting book, singularly well written and embellished with numerous excellent engravings. Both the printer and the binder deserve credit for the handsome appearance they have given to the volume.

Glimpses of the French Revolution: Myths, Ideals, Realities. By JOHN G. ALGER. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Co.

1894.

Histories of the French Revolution, though not altogether satisfactory, have probably been written in sufficient numbers, at least for the present. The time has probably not come for one that is altogether satisfactory; but whether or not, the time is always present for correcting the errors into which historians of that epoch-making event have fallen, and for dissipating the myths which have gained currency in connection with it. So Mr. Alger appears to have felt, and in the singularly wellwritten pages of the volume before us he has done a great deal in that direction. His volume is not a history, but a series of glimpses,' as he calls them; glimpses obtained by a patient study of the original documents belonging to the period, and still preserved in the French Archives. First of all he deals with the myths of the French Revolution, and has no difficulty in showing that Cazotte's prediction, so circumstantially narrated by Laharpe, and afterwards believed by Louis Blanc, and gravely narrated in his 'History of the Revolution,' was a pure fabrication. So again with the story of the daughter of Sombreuil, the Governor of the Hôtel des Invalides, drinking a glass of blood in order to save her father's life. Sombreuil, it appears, had been acquitted, and the utmost that can be made of the story is that, on the day of his acquittal she may have drunk a glass of water coloured with wine, or that water was offered to her into which a drop of blood had fallen by accident. Labussière's story, that he had saved 1500 lives by destroying the documents incriminating actors and other prisoners, and risked his life by creeping into a box used for storing firewood-a story on which M. Sardow founded his drama, 'Thermidor,' is altogether discounted. Mr. Alger brings against these stories evidence of such a character that, though they have long been accepted as true, their mythical character will hereafter require to be admitted. He further shows that the Girondins had no last supper, that contrary to the statement of Carlyle, no attempt was made to save the last batch of victims condemned by Robespierre, that Tom Paine had no miraculous escape from the guillotine, and that the two boys, Barra and Viala, whose remains the Convention had ordered to be placed in the Pantheon, and for whose apotheosis David the artist had made the preparations, were no heroes, and that the stories of their heroism are ridiculous fables. Mr. Alger next treats of the theorists of the Revolution and their theories. He has much also to say of Baron Cloots and his deputation, about Paul Jones, Joel Barlow, and Swan, a Fifeshire man, one of the Boston 'teaparty,' who rather than satisfy a disputed claim spent one-third of his life in a Paris prison. In his later chapters, Mr. Alger speaks of some of the realities of the Revolution, showing the prominent part which women played in it, and illustrating the working of the Revolutionary Tribunal by the trial and acquittal of Sir William Codrington, the conviction of General Dillon, and the summary execution of Arthur. Altogether the book is full of incidents, and while correcting errors, furnishes much information respecting many of the less known scenes and incidents in Paris and France during the Revolutionary Period, and as well respecting many of the principal characters of the time.

Life of the Right Rev. William Reeves, D.D., Lord Bishop of Down, Connor, and Dromore; President of the Royal Irish Academy, etc., etc. By LADY FERGUSON. Dublin: Hodges, Figgis & Co. London: Longmans, Green & Co. 1893. In one sense Dr. Reeves' life was quiet and uneventful; in another it was intense, active, and remarkably fruitful. Few men have accomplished so much in their own special departments, and there are few, if any, to