IV. NEGATIVES.

In French the negative usually consists of two words—ne followed by pas, point, rien, jamais, etc.

strictly kept.

i. Pas (or point) is left out.

In La Fontaine this rule is not very

This is usual with some verbs-pouvoir, savoir, oser, cesser, bouger; e.g., Ne bougeons d'où nous sommes; comme il n'y pouvait atteindre, etc.

But occasionally the pas, etc., is omitted in cases where it would have to be used in modern French :

e.g.-lui qui n'était novice (i.e. qui n'était pas).

-De tout temps les chevaux ne sont nés pour les hommes. ii. Ne is left out:

e.g.-Fit-il pas mieux que de se plaindre (i.e. Ne fit-il pas . . .) iii. Instead of pas or point, etc., some other word is used forming a real equivalent, but apparently irregular:

-il n'en reviendrait morceau.

-la cigogne . . . n'en put attraper miette.

-chose ne leur parut à tous plus salutaire.

iv. Aussi is used in the sense of either in negative phrases where non plus would be used now :

-Je ne l'ai pas mauvais aussi.

v. Ni is used incorrectly for ou, there being no negative: Penses-tu, lui dit-il que ton titre de roi

Me fasse peur, ni me soucie?

V. WORDS USED IN DIFFERENT MEANINGS.

I. Preposition

EN.

i. With nouns : en France, en grosseur, en faute-at fault; il s'habille en berger—like a shepherd; agir en loup—like a wolf.

ii. With present participles: en voulant—whilst wishing; en se saisissant-by seizing.

N.B.-En in modern French is used in general phrases without the definite article; with the article, dans is used. In these Fables the older use constantly occurs-en l'eau, en la machine ronde, etc. etc. II. Pronoun or Adverbial Pronoun

i. Of place: Il en vient-from there.

(Often used with verbs of

motion-s'en aller, s'en venir, s'en retourner-where it is not translated as a rule in English.)

etc.:

ii. As a personal pronoun standing for de lui, d'elle, d'eux, de cela,

-on n'en sait pas le nombre (i.e. d'eux).

-la meute en fait curée (i.e. de lui).

iii. With the def. article, used instead of a possessive adj. when referring to an inanimate object :

les appartements en etaient trop petits (its apartments).

iv. With a numeral adj. or indef. pronoun (generally not translated in English):

-en est-il un plus pauvre . .

v. In several vaguer uses, referring to preceding statements: e.g., il en rapporta davantage (en, for it-the digging mentioned in preceding lines).

-comme il n'y pouvait atteindre (i.e. aux raisins).

iii. Vaguely, referring to past statements generally:

e.g.-Mouflar y croyait perdre (by it, i.e. by having his ears cut off).

DE.

i. Of motion: from, out of—sortir du puits, sauvé du trepas. ii. Of the instrument:

-puis des pieds de devant ensemble le porter-with.

-ils l'avalent des yeux, du doigt ils se la montrent—with.

iii. Of manner: mourant de faim—of; vient d'un pas agile—with; plumé d'étrange sorte-in a strange way.

iv. Material: un œuf d'or-a golden egg.

v. Quality: de belle taille, un chien de bonne race, une personne de sens.

vi. Quantity: after tant, assez, beaucoup, point, etc.

:

Used as a

vii. Partitive des raisins-some grapes; de secrètes pratiques (no article, because adj. precedes noun); d'autres-others. superlative: un renard des plus fins-one of the craftiest of foxes.

viii. After certain verbs or adjectives: e.g., Il pria le cheval de l'aider; couverts, chargés de-with; pleine de vrais amis-of; avait raison de trouver, etc. etc.

ix. = for, in return for: tu seras châtié de ta témérité; payez-moi de ma peine, en louant Dieu de toute chose.

x. In several adverbial phrases: e.g., de fortune-by chance; de sa vie-in his life, etc.

A.

i. Of motion to: retourner au logis.

ii. Before a noun to express purpose or use:

l'étable à bœufs; le panier au pain-the bread-basket.

iii. In personal descriptions :

la cigogne au long bec-with the . . . ; l'autour aux serres cruelles. iv. Of possession: Elle doit être à moi-mine.

v. Of time or place: A ces mots-at these words; au temps chaud -in the ...; depuis qu'il est au monde-in the world; à toute extrémité-in

vi. In certain phrases, some noun being understood:

à la légère, à l'étourdie, à la longue, à son ordinaire.

vii. To mark the indirect object after verbs:

toucher à . . .; donner quelque chose à . . .

viii. With adverbial complement :

le saisit au frein-by . . .; marchait à pas pesants-with. ix. According to : A ce que dit la fable.

QUE.

i. Relative pron. objective case: (geais. . .) que l'on nomme plagiaires-whom.

ii. Interrog. pron. : Que nous sert cette queue? Qu'ai-je fait-what? iii. Adverbial: Que vous êtes joli, que vous me semblez beau-how! when: Un jour que

iv.

V.

=

than, as, in comparisons: souffrir plutôt que mourir. On a souvent besoin d'un plus petit que soi. Aussi fort que nous.

vi. Used as a conjunction after verbs: croire que, dire que, etc. etc.

vii. Corresponding to ce, and completing its meaning:

C'est mourir deux fois que souffrir tes atteintes.

viii. Joined to prepos. and adverbs to form conjunctions: e.g., dès que, avant que, aussitôt que, etc.

ix. Used in place of other conjunctions:

= afin que-Descends, que je t'embrasse.

= avant que-Ne lui donna point de repos

Que le cerf ne fût pris et n'y laissât la vie.

VI. ARCHAISMS.

Several of these have been alluded to in the preceding paragraphs, and most will be found mentioned in the Notes. Such are: devant que for avant de; the frequent use of the infinitive as a noun-e.g. Il accomplit son dire; pour with the infin. parce que with the indicative; par with the infin. =en with the present participle; à for avec, à toute peine, etc.-relics of a time when the rules of grammar were less rigidly fixed than at present.

=

Some of the words La Fontaine uses survive in rustic and familiar language and in old-fashioned phrases, but have dropped out of literary French: e.g., pâti (= pâturage), pâtir (= souffrir), maflu, matois, lippée, frairie, herbette, voire, gent, etc.

Occasionally the word is still used, but in a different sense: e.g., partisan, loyer, douteux, enseigne, débris, curieux, sycophante, etc.

Sometimes he uses forms once valid, but now entirely obsolete: e.g., treuve (= trouve), die (= dise), étrets (= etroits).

NOTES.

LINE

I.-LE RENARD ET LES RAISINS.

1. certain, 'a certain.' Here' certain' is quite indefinite in meaning, like the Latin word 'quidam.'

gascon . . . normand. Gascony and Normandy were two of the provinces of France as divided before the Revolution. The capital of Gascony was Bordeaux; that of Normandy, Rouen. The Gascons, full of 'blarney,' were the Irishmen of France, the 'canny' Normands may be called the Scotchmen of France. The fox was shrewd enough to see that he could not reach the grapes, and ready with a plausible excuse.

d'autres, not 'des autres.' The rule is that when an adjective comes before a noun, used in a partitive sense, the preposition 'de' is used instead of the partitive article. The full phrase would be 'd'autres personnes,' 'd'autres gens.'

2. au haut. The adjective is used as a noun. Cp. 'le malade,' ‘le riche,' 'le pauvre,' etc.

3. raisins. Notice that the English word 'raisins' is only used of dried grapes, and the French word 'grappe' of a 'bunch' of anything.

apparemment, not 'apparently,' but 'evidently,' 'obviously.' 5. le galant. A difficult word to translate. It is used in a playful, half-sarcastic way, implying a mixture of cheerfulness and rascality. It may be translated our fine friend,' 'the festive spark.'

en, 'on them,' 'off them'; see Grammatical Introduction V. eût fait. Mind the tense. It is an independent subjunctive. 6. y, governed by atteindre-used in its ordinary pronominal sense, referring to inanimate objects-'raisins.'

7. goujats, 'snobs.' The word meant originally a lad, then a campfollower or soldier's servant, and then became further degraded in meaning. Cp. our English word 'knave.'

8. Fit-il pas.

We should expect ne fit-il pas,' but in La Fontaine's time people were not so particular as they are now about the use of the negatives; and besides, rules are not so strictly kept in the poetical or conversational style.