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prefires, and suffices. Suffixes are sometimes called affires (ad, | 17; and figo, I jix). They may also be designated terminations, especially when they are not so much fragments of words as utter-endings, or additions forming the specific parts of speech in each case. Thus right becomes righteous, and righteous becomes righteousness, and righteously; where cous, ness, and ly are terminations; the first modifying the adjective, the third converting the adjective into an adverb, and the second changing the adjective into a noun.

Of these three classes, the roots are by far the most numerous. The roots also undergo very various modifications from the prefixes and the suffixes. On these accounts, it seems desirable to study the prefixes and suffixes before we study the roots.

Before entering into the requisite details, I wish to make

another distinction.

tire.

source.

trust that the healthful sympathies of the people will do some-
thing to restore the original idioms of the English tongue.
A, of Saxon origin, is also used as an intensive. An intensive
(in, on, and tendo, I stretch) is that which increases the force of
a word, expanding, as it were, its essential power. A, as an
intensive, is of frequent use, and is exemplified in these words,
ashamed, afraid (old form afeared), arise, amain (a and mogen,
to be able; macht, power, in the German; compare the Latin
magnus, great). Thus Dryden :—

"She said; her brimful eyes that ready stood,
And only wanted will to weep a flood,
Released their wat ry store, and poured amain,
Like clouds, low-hung, a sober show'r of rain."

A, of Latin origin, meaning from, is found in the forms a, ab, abs-e.g., abatement (French, abattre, to beat down), a beating from or down; abbreviation (Latin, brevis, short), a shortening; abstraction (Latin, traho, I draw), a drawing from, or away.

"But man the abstract

Of all perfection which the workmanship
Of Heaven hath modelled, in himself contains
Passions of several qualities."-Ford.

A, of Greek origin, found chiefly in scientific words, nas a negative or primitive force; that is, it reverses the meaning, or denies what is implied in the term, as acephalous (Greek, Kepaλn, pronounced kef-a-le, head), without head; a term applied in anatomy to the young of any animal born, from original defect of organisation, without a head. To avoid an hiatus (Latin, hiatus, gaping), a becomes an before a vowel; as anarchy, the absence of government; government in Greek being apxn, pronounced ar-key.

Take the word truthfulness. Analyse the word. Obviously it consists of three elements: 1, truth; 2, full; 3, ness. Truth is the primitive word. By the addition of full (or ful), truth becomes truthful, an adjective; and the adjective truthful is made into a noun by the annexation of the syllable ness. Instead of a noun, I might have formed an adverb by subjoining ly; thus, truthfully. I have said that truth is the primitive word. Primitive is here used in opposition to the word derivaIn relation to its derivatives truthful, truthfully, and truthfulness, the word truth is a primitive word, for it is their It is another question whether truth may not be reduced to a simpler form. In the same way, truthful is a primitive term when viewed in relation to its derivative truth fally. As with human beings, each word is in turn child and parent. Still there must be a common stock. But genealogies in language are scarcely less obscure than other genealogies. In linguistical genealogies, authority must receive great deferNow the word truth can be reduced to a simpler form, and yet remain a word. From truth take th, and you have tru -that is, true. So from strength take th, and you have streng, an old form of strong. But fowl is not a derivative word, because you cannot reduce it to another word in a simpler form; for, if you remove the l or the wl, the remainder is no word at all. Words, then, which appear to be primitive, may be derivatire; and the rule by which to ascertain whether a noun is Af. primitive or derivative is this: words which, on the removal of one or more of their letters, have a distinct meaning, are derivatires; and words which, on the removal of one or more of their letters, have no distinct meaning, are primitives. By the appli- 4g. "Corporations aggregate consist of many persons united together cation of this rule, we learn that kingdom is a derivative, and addition a derivative; while pen and head are primitives.

ence.

Ad, of Latin origin, to, passes into the forms ac, af, ag, al, an. ap, ar, as, at—that is, the terminating consonant of the prefix is, for the sake of ease in pronunciation, changed into the initial (Latin, initium, beginning) consonant of the noun; e.g.:—

Ad.

Ac.

Al.

The prefixes and the affixes in the English language are numerous. Without a correct acquaintance with their import, the exact force of words can scarcely be understood. But these An. prefixes and affixes are of Latin and of Saxon origin. Consequently, in our attempt to ascertain their meaning, we must Ap. borrow aid from the Latin and from the Saxon. A few prefixes come from the Greek, the signification of which is to be found in the Greek. I shall treat first of prefixes, and, for the sake of facility of reference, take them up in alphabetical order.

PREFIXES IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

A (an), of Saxon origin, has the force of in or on; as along, alongside, aback, ahead, abed. In this sense it is used in connection with present participles, as, a hunting; that is, in or at hunting. The form occurs in our common version of the Scriptures, in John xxi. 3, being a relic of the language in its older state, such as in part it is now found in colloquial diction. The phrase may be exemplified, and its meaning shown by comparing together the renderings of different versions of this passage:

Common Version. Simon Peter saith unto them, I go a fishing. Widif (1380). Symount Petir seith to hem, I go to fische. Tndale (1534). Simon Peter sayde vnto them, I goo a fysshinge. Cranmer (1539). Simon Peter sayeth vnto them, I will go a fisshinge. Geneva (1557). Simon Peter sayd vnto them, I go a fysshing. Eheims (1582). Simon Peter saith to them, I goe to fish. Authorised (1611). Simon Peter saith vnto them, I goe a fishing. Not only are these instances curious as exhibiting varieties of spelling, but they seem to show how thoroughly a part of the language is this prefix in the sense now illustrated. Yet is the usage disallowed, and by some regarded as a vulgarism. I

Ar.

As.

At.

"An adjournment is no more than a continuance of the session from one day to another, as the word (jour, French, day) itself signifies."-Blackstone.

"The greatness of sins is by extension and accumulation."— Jeremy Taylor.

"'Tis most true

That musing meditation most affects

The pensive secrecy of desert-cell

Far from the cheerful haunts of men and herds."-Milton.

into one society, and are kept up by a perpetual succession of members, so as to continue for ever."-Blackstone. "Then by libel (libellus, a little book), or by articles drawn out in a formal allegation, set forth the complainant's ground of complaint."-Blackstone.

"This god-like act

Aanuls thy doom."

Millon.

"God desires that in his church, knowledge and piety, peace and charity, and good order should grow and flourish; to which purposes he hath appointed teachers to instruct and governors to watch over his people."—Barrow.

"Arrogant is he that thinketh he hath those beauties in him that he hath not."-Chaucer.

"Are you discontent

With laws to which you gave your own assent ?"-Pope.
"The most wise God hath so attempered the blood and bodies of
fishes, that a small degree of heat is sufficient to preserve their
due consistency and motion, and to maintain life."-Ray.
Amb, of Latin or rather Greek origin, found in the Greek
aupi (pronounced am'-fi), around, and in the Latin ambo, both,
signifies on both sides, as ambidextrous (Latin, dexter, the right
hand), literally, having a right hand on both sides; that is, one
who uses his left hand equally well with the right.

"Should I that am a man of law
Make use of such a subtile claw,
In London or in Exeter;
And be of both sides, as you were,
People would count me then, I fear,
A knavish ambodexter.-Brome.

Arab is found in the form of amph, as amphitheatre, a theatre
of two sides or circus; amphibious, double-lived, that is, living
on land and in water.

Ana, of Greek origin, up, back, as in anachronism (Greek, Xpovos, pronounced kron'-os, time), an error in date by which an

event is placed too high up or too far back; generally a devia- Anti, of Greek origin (avi, pronounced an'-te, against), in tion from the order of time.

"The dresses and buildings of the time are preserved, though by frequent anachronisms."-Walpole.

The ana is found also in anagram (Greek, ypauua, pronounced gram'-ma, a letter), which is a word produced by the transposition of its letters, having a meaning different from the original. "And see where Juno, whose great name

Is Unio in the anagram,

Displays her glittering state and chair."-Ben Jonson.

Ante, of Latin origin, before, as antedate, to date before time, to anticipate

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"Andromache, my soul's far better part,

Why with untimely sorrows heaves thy heart?

No hostile hand can antedate my doom,

opposition to, as in antichrist, opposed to Christ-
"If once that antichristian crew,

Be crush'd and overthrown,
We'll teach the nobles how to crouch,

And keep the gentry down."-Quarles.

In theology, antitype stands correlatively over against type, as the counter-pattern to the pattern, the corresponding and completing form.

"The Mosaic law was intended for a single people only, who were to be shut in, as it were, from the rest of the world, by a fence of legal rites and typical ceremonies; and to be kept by that means separate and unmixed until the great antitype, the Messiah, should appear, and break down this fence and lay open this inclosure.”— Atterbury.

The i in anti is sometimes dropped before a vowel, as in

Till fate condemns me to the silent tomb."-Pope's Homer. antarctic, which means opposite to or over against the north.

quill

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a

COPY-SLIP NO. 46.-THE LETTER X.

LESSONS IN PENMANSHIP.-XIII. IN Copy-slip No. 43 the learner is shown how the letter q is connected with the letter u, which may be justly termed its inseparable companion, as there is no word in the English language in which q appears without being immediately followed by u. It is just possible, however, to give a word which forms an exception to this rule; and to satisfy those who may be curious on the point, and to make some slight addition to their stock of geographical knowledge, we may at once tell our readers that if they will take the trouble to search the map of France, they will find it in the name of a little country town called Acqs r Ax, which is situated in the department of Arriége, near the foot of the Pyrenees, and noted for the hot springs that are found in its neighbourhood. In writing the word quill, the Tarner will find a useful exercise in carrying letters above and ow the lines a a, bb, in the same word, the practice afforded similar to that which was given by the words put and Copy-slips 30 and 34.

In a former lesson (see page 173) it was remarked that there were some letters of the writing alphabet whose form is based on that of the letter o. These letters, which are C, x, e, and s, may be fairly termed modifications of the letter O, in the same way that we have the letters t and 1 as modifications of the pot-hook or bottom-turn. The first of them, the letter C, is com. menced about the same distance above the line c c as the letter O, but instead of beginning with a hair-line, a dot is first formed from which a hair-line is carried round to the left, and the rest of the letter is formed in the same way as the letter o, with this exception, that the fine turn at the bottom of the letter is carried to the right and joined to the letter that follows it, as may be seen in Copy-slip No. 45. The dot with which the letter C is commenced is made (the self-teacher must carefully note this), not exactly in the same spot in which the letter O is usually commenced, but about a hair's breadth to the left of it, and the hair-line is carried on from the bottom of the dot, and not from the top of it, in a direction which turns first to the right and then upwards, after which the letter is completed as described above.

LESSONS IN GERMAN.-XII.
SECTION XXII-THE VERB TO BE, ETC.

ein, like the corresponding English verb, is very irregular in

conjugation; its different parts having been derived from words now obsolete.

It is used as the auxiliary to many active intransitive verbs, such as femmen, gehen, etc., where haben cannot (like have for be in English) be substituted, as :-Er ist gekommen, he is come. Gr ift gegangen, he is gone. (§ 71. 3. 4.)

Sein is employed as the auxiliary in its own conjugation; as-Ich bin gewesen, I have been; literally, I am been. For complete conjugation, see § 72. 2.

CONJUGATION OF THE PERFECT TENSE OF sein, kommen, gehen.

AND

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sie sind gekommen, they have come.

wir sind gegangen, we have gone. ihr seid gegangen, you have gone. fie sind gegangen, they have gone. VOCABULARY.

Käfig, m. cage.
Kennen, to know, to
be
acquainted
with.
Rommen, to come.
Laufen, to run.
Markt, m. market.
Nachricht, f. news.

Berlin', n. Berlin.
Bleiben, to remain.
Bringen, to bring.
Da, there.
Dresten, n. Dresden.
Fliegen, to fly.
Frietrich, m. Frederick
Glauben, to believe.
Jemand, somebody, Preußen, n. Prussia.
anybody.
Rindfleisch, n. beef.
RÉSUMÉ OF EXAMPLES.

Die Werke Gottes sind man'nigfal.
tig; seine Liebe ist unendlich und
an allen Orten sichtbar.

Ich war in der Stadt, als der Kö, nig ba war.

Der Kronprinz ist vor'gestern hier
gewesen.

Wer ist mit der Schwester auf das
Land gegan'gen?

EXERCISE 34.

1. Is your sister who gave me these flowers [Blume] at home? 2. No, she has gone into the country. 3. There has been somebody in the garden. 4. Do you reside in Berlin? 5. No, I reside in Dresden. 6. The Queen has returned [zurückgekommen] from Belgium [von Belgien]. 7. Do you know the merchant who little pleasure [wenig Vergnügen] on your journey [Reise]; you have came from Vienna ? 8. Yes, I know him. 9. You have had not been far [weit]. 10. You had more pleasure than we had, but we have been as much pleased [ebenso vergnügt] as you.

SECTION XXIII.-VARIOUS IDIOMS.

The word aus, without the article, when preceded by nach, answers to our "home" after verbs of motion, as :-Er geht nach Hause, he is going home.

Zu Hause answers to our "at home," as:- -Er ist zu Hause, he is at home.

Bei (with) is commonly used with verbs of rest, and signifies (with a pronoun following) at one's house or place of business, as:- -Er wohnt bei uns, he lives at our house. Ich kaufte es bei meinem Vetter, I bought it at my cousin's.

-Ich gehe

Mit (with) is chiefly used with verbs of motion, as :-) mit ihm, I am going with him.

Zu Jemanden gehen signifies, frequently, to go to the house or residence of some one, as:- -Ich gebe zu meinem Oheim, I am going to my uncle's. Wollen Sie heute Abend zu uns fommen? will you come to our house this evening i (§ 112. 3. 7. 8. 13.)

1. Derselbe (the same) is compounded of ter and selber. It is inflected precisely like derjenige.

Schnee, m. snow.
Schreiben, to write.
Sprechen, to speak.
Vogel, m. bird.
Wetter, n. weather.
Wien, n. Vienna.
Wissen, to know.
Wohnen, to reside, to A. Denselben,
dwell.

The works of God are manifold; his love is infinite and in all places visible.

I

was in the city when the
king was there.

The crown-prince was here the
day before yesterday.
Who has gone to the country
with your (the) sister?

Diesel be, die vor'gestern mit ihr The same that came here

hierher gekom'men ist. Gehen Sie heute auf das Land? Nein, weil ich foe'ben von dem Lande gefom'men bin.

(hither) with her the day before yesterday.

Do you go to the country today?

No, for I have just come from the country.

EXERCISE 33.

1. Ist dieser junge Mann krank? 2. Nein, aber er ist gestern krank gewesen. (Sect. XVII. 8.) 3. Wer ist in dem Garten Ihres Vaters | gewesen? 4. Niemand ist in dem Garten gewesen, aber Iemand ist in seinem Hause gewesen. 5. Wie lange bleibt der alte Bauer noch in ter Start? 6. Ich kenne den alten Bauern nicht, und weiß nicht, wie lange er bleibt. 7. Ist Ihr alter Freund, der Kaufmann, nach Wien gegangen? 8. Ich glaube, er ist nach Berlin zu seinem Bruter gegangen. 9. Von wem haben Sie heute diese Nachricht gehört? 10. Ich habe einen meiner Freunde gesprochen, welcher von Dresten gekommen ist, und mir einen Brief von meinem Vater gebracht hat. 11. Ich wohne bei meinem Oheim, und gehe | mit ihm nach dem kleinen Dorse. 12. Mein schöner Vogel ist aus dem Käfig geflogen, und mein kleines Pferd ist nach dem Walte gelaufen. 13. Was hat Ihr Herr Vater Ihnen geschrieben? 14. Er hat mir einen langen Brief geschrieben. 15. Wann sind Sie auf dem Markte gewesen? 16. Ich bin vorgestern Abend da gewesen, und habe Rindfleisch gekauft. 17. Wir baben diesen Nachmittag schönes Wetter gehabt. 18. Diese Schüler sind faul und jene fleißig gewesen. 19. Der Schnee ist vorgestern sehr tief gewesen. 20. Ich bin nie krank gewesen. 21. Frietrich der Große war ein König von Preußen.

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Masculine.

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N. Derselbe,

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All genders. dieselben, the same.

G. Desselben,

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D. Demselben,

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derselben, of the same. denselben, to the same. dieselben, the same.

2. Derselbe is often used in place of a personal pronoun, to avoid repetition or ambiguity, as :-Haben Sie dieselbe (sie) gesehen? Have you seen (the same) her? Der Mann lobt den Knaben, weil berselbe seine Mutter chrt; the man praises the boy, because the same (he) honours his mother. Er liebt seinen Bruder, aber nicht die Kinder desselben; he loves his brother, but not his children (he loves his brother, but not the children of the same).

The genitive of the substantive pronoun ter is also thus used, as- -Er liebt seinen Bruter, aber dessen Kinder nicht; he loves his brother, but not (that one's) his children.

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Ich habe des Lehrers Buch, aber nicht I have the teacher's book, but das Messer dessel'ben. not his knife. EXERCISE 35.

1. Wo ist das Blei, welches Sie gekauft haben? 2. Es ist noch im Laden, wo ich es gekauft habe. 3. Haben Sie dieselbe Feter, welche ich gehabt habe? 4. Wem werten Sie diese goldene Taschenuhr schicken? 5. Ich werde sie demselben Manne schicken, welcher sie mir geschickt hat. 6. Wie viel Geld braucht dieser alte Soltat? 7. Er braucht viel, wiel er immer krank ist. 8. Ist es derselbe, welcher gestern hier war? 9. Nein,

jener ift keuse sehr lahm. 10. Wem schicken Sie ten schönen Ring? 11. sch side ibn tem Manne, welchen Sie so sehr gelobt haben. 12. Haben Sie tie Freunte meines Bruture gelebt? 13. Ja, ich habe sie gelobt. 14. Haben Sie tuliven nicht geliebt? 15. Ich habe eine kleine Schwester, welche ich liebe, lieben Sie tiefelbe? 16. Der Oheim liebt seinen Neffen, aber terjilbe ift untaaltar. 17. Der Vater liebt seinen kleinen Sohn, wiel terilbe gut ift. 18. Warum fint so viele Trurren in ter Stadt? 19. Weil sie aus tem &tieje aelommen find. 20. Warum lieben uns unfere Gitern? 21. Weil nir iore Kinter And 22. Zu wem gehen Sie? 23. sch gebe zu meinem Better. 24. Mit wem gehen Sie? 25. Ich gehe mit meinem Prater. EXERCISE 36.

1. Is your brother at home? 2. Yes, but he is ill. 3. Where have you bought this watch? 4. I bought gefauft] it of the watchinaker. 5. These rings are beautiful, will you give me one of them? 6. The troops which went to Leipsic returned yesterday. 7. The teacher loves the boy, because he writes beautifully. 8. Do you go to your parents ? 9. I go with my brother. 10. These children love their teacher, because he is good to them. 11. Do you require my books any longer? 12. I will give you them back jutud] to-morrow.

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what is the same thing, write the decimal points under one another, and then proceed to add thus:-8 ten thousandths and 4 ten thousandths are 12 ten thousandths, i.e., 1 28.35 thousandth and 2 ten thousandths; write down 2 345-3294 under the ten thousandths' place, and carry the 1 to *0018 the next column of figures, as in simple addition. 6.4 The same method will evidently apply for all the columns, since the value of each place of figures increases tenfold from left to right. The decimal point in the answer will clearly fall under the column of decimal points. We may also exhibit the process thus:--28.35 == 2535 3453294 = =3453294 ·0018 18 = F 6.4

1007

10000">

380 0812

64

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1. Find the sum of the following decimals:

1. 257, 8:39, 23:056, and 57.145.

2. 00162, 1701, 325, 2-7031, and 3′000701.

3. 103041, 6·578034, 2*4178, and 4.72103.

4. 467-3004, 28-78249, 129468, and 378241.

5. 293-0072, 89′00301, 29-84567, 924-00369, and 72-39002.

6. 394-61, 81-928, 36248103, 640-203, and 51216291-30052.

7. 36-258, 2:0675, 382:45, and 7:3981.

8. 32-761, 5-78, 16′0037, and 49:3046.

9. 425, 6-293, 4·612, 38:07, 2:056, 3:218, and 162.

10. 35-7603, 47-0076, 129-03, 100′007, and 20-32,

11. 246134, 800`7, 29-461, 1·7506, and 3:45.

12. 45001, 163-4234, 20-3)15, 634-2104, and 234·90213.

13. 1721341, 8-62017, 51-720315, 2684, and 62:304607.

11. 1293062, 3·00012, 9-7003146, 3×600126, 7·0040031, and 8-7200489.

2. Add together the following, after writing them as decimals:

1. 45 thousandths, 6 millionths, 9 tenths, and 11 ter millionths. 2. 25 hundredths, 8 tenths, 65 thousandths, 16 hundredths, 142

thousandths, and 39 hundredths.

3. 9 tenths, 92 hundredths, 162 thousandth 439 thousandths, and 92 millionths.

4. 29 hundredths, 7 millionths, 62 thousandths, and 12567 ten millionths.

5. 95 thousandths, 61 millionths, 6 tenths, 11 hundredths, and 265 hundred thousandths.

6. 1 tenth, 2 hundredths, 16 thousandths, 7 millionths, 26 thousandths, 95 ten millionths, and 7 ten thousandths.

7. 96 hundred thousandths, 92 millionths, 25 hundredths, 45 thousandths, and 7 tenths.

8. Subtraction of Decimals.

It is evident, from the remarks we have made with respect to the addition of decimals, that the process of subtraction will be performed in exactly the same way as in simple subtraction.

Thus, to subtract 3:275 from 6:14, we write the decimal points under each other, as in the margin, adding a cipher to 6:14 for convenience, to make the number of decimal 6·140 places correspond with that of the number to be sub- 3-275 tracted. We then say--borrowing 1 (really, or 1) from the next highest order of figures, as in simple addition-5 from 10 leaves 5, then 8 from 14 leaves 6, and so on, the devinaal point in the row of figures obtained falling under the other decimal points.

We may also exhibit the process as follows:

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2-865

= 2.865. O's. The methods of simple addition and subtraction apply to decimals, because the only condition upon which their truth depends is, that the places of figures should increase in value in a tenfold ratio from right to left, which is the case with

33, 345 3294, 0018, and 6A, top units, tenths under tenths, etc.; or,, decimals.

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proverb receives its fulfilment in human history, "When God loathes aught, men come presently to loathe it too."

Justice in the administration of the law is a glory to any people. It is well known that in the degenerate days of Rome the judges were in the guilty habit of receiving bribes, and it is needless to say that at this period the national character had degenerated, when other things beside the ermine of justice were dragged in the dirt. English law is above suspicion for purity and honour in its administration. Trial by jury answers to a very large extent the high ends of justice, whilst the Courts of Equity, now so much more used than in olden days, save the cause of truth from being lost by mere legal quibbles and technicalities.

Justice in commercial life is the very cement of society. When

2. Subtract the less from the greater of the following it is infringed upon by wrong-doing, depression settles down on

numbers:

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THERE is a sense of accountability in every human breast. Savage and civilised races adke manifest its existence. The degree of its intensity, as a power, may differ, but it is as much an integral part of the moral nature of man, as the eye and the ear are parts of his physical economy. All injustice is contrary to our moral sense. It may be indulged to gratify passion, pride, ambition, covetousness; but it is condemned by the high court of judicature within, and sooner or later injustice brings its terrible penalty with it. Naboth's vineyard may be unjustly secured by covetous pillage, but neither the groves nor the grapes can minister lasting happiness: the gnawing sense of wrong will be awakened. That which a man sows he is sure to reap. This fine and delicate sense, it is admitted, may be dimmed by ignorance, darkened by superstition, and sometimes, by long neglect, it may but slumber in the breast; but it never dies out. All nations have more or less honoured the God-given sentiment of justice. The Greeks had their Justitia, called Astræa and Themis; the Romans had a goddess, which was at one time an abstraction rather than a deity possessing personality. The coins, however, that have been preserved, represent Justice as a maiden wearing a diadem, holding a sword and scales. Sometimes she is represented as holding in the one hand a cup, and in the other a sceptre. Nor can we forget that in the earlier ages of history, three years before Xerxes invaded Greece, the Athenians hastened to call to their political councils, and to the command of their armies, one who had before received the memorable cognomen of Aristides the Just. It need scarcely be said that the Scriptures also are full of honours paid to the just.

Nothing is so mean as injustice. Lacking the element of justice in character, no other qualification will be of much avail. Generosity is only a misnomer where justice is set at nought. If we give prodigally to some whilst we are defrauding others, we are not generous but merciless. Injustice, however, does not merely relate to our dealings in material commodities. It appertains to our estimates of each other, to our expressions concerning each other, and to all the aspects of our common life. We may do the very greatest injustice to others even by the suppressio veri, or the mere keeping back of truth concerning them. Justice is of immense importance to nations. The preservation of treaties, the payment of bonds and interests on national loans is of the highest moment to the reputation of any people, and the infraction of just principles is sure to work out national punishment in the loss of credit and prestige. As it is with nations, so it is with individuals. Men come to shrink with disdain from the wally unjust, and the old

trade and commerce, and for this single reason, that in civilised states of society all bartering and exchanging is carried on upon credit, which is only another word for confidence; if, therefore, that be damaged, it is easy to see how all the interests of the nation must suffer with it. Then only are we safe from paltry jobbery and trickery, when we can honestly say, "I hate oppression and robbery."

We are not to be just only because it will be rewarded here and hereafter: we are to do right because it is right. At the same time we cannot conceal from ourselves the fact that in the system of things in which we live there are rewards accompanying an upright life such as no wealth can purchase. To be looked upon as unimpeachable for integrity, and unquestionable concerning justice, is to have that atmosphere of respect around us which can only be ensured by persistent continuance in well-doing.

Injustice, whatever form it assumes, apart from its inner penalties, will bring coldness and suspicion with it, and we shall lose two of the sweetest enjoyments of life-the sense of an approving conscience, and the good name which, we are told on the highest authority, is rather to be chosen than silver or gold. Only quibblers ask, "What is justice ?" They try to set aside its claims by casuistical questions concerning its nature. Justice is, in a word, the practice of those essentially Christian maxims, doing unto others as we would they should do unto us, and loving our neighbour as ourselves. We have treated of justice first amongst the moral principles in our consideration of life and duty, because we have in it the basis of national, as it is of individual, prosperity and honour. Above all, let us remember that it is this faculty in the moral sense which, whilst it ensures for us the favour of man, keeps us also in the fear of God.

LESSONS IN DRAWING.-VII.

To draw Fig. 51, proceed as follows: draw the horizontal line HL, arrange the PS, and place the point a where the corner of the wall crosses the horizontal line; next, the points d and e, with the perpendiculars passing through them. As the arch is semicircular, its centre will be at h, perpendicular to i, found by the intersection of the diagonal lines fk and b m; the point h is then the radiating point for the points of the stones forming the arch. If the arch were lower, as Fig. 52, draw the chord ab; from the centre d mark the required height cd, draw ca and cb, bisect ac and cb by the lines ƒe and ge, e will then be the centre of the circle of which a cb is a segment; the lines 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., will radiate at e. To bisect a line, as cb in Fig. 52, from c and b, with the same distance in the compasses make arcs to cut one another in p and s; through these points p and s draw a straight line, which will bisect the line c b, that is, it will divide it into two equal parts.

It will be seen that the heights of many kinds of arches are regulated by their diameters; the two pointed arches, Figs. 53 and 54, will exemplify this. Let the diameter of the pointed horse-shoe arch, Fig. 53, be a b, bisect it in e, and draw to any length ef; bisect a e in c, and eb in d; from c, with the radius cb (or distance of c b taken with the compasses), describe the arc bf; also from d, with the same radius, describe the arc af. The higher-pointed arch, called the early English, Fig. 54, radiates from a and b, with the distance a b producing the ares a d and b d.

The semi-elliptical arch, Fig. 55. Let ab be the diameter; bisect a b in e by the line cd; bisect eb and ea in the points f and g; from f, with the radius fg, draw the arc gh, and from g, with the same radius, draw the arc fh; draw from h, through

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