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ations in which he has designed them to live and act. The wing of the bird is precisely adapted to the air; the fin of the fish is adapted to the element where it is placed; the organ of respiration is conformed to the properties of the atmosphere; the eye exhibits a wonderful adaptation to the light; the organ of touch is skilfully adapted to the nature of the external bodies with which it is conversant; and the same of instances innumerable. As man, therefore, is found existing as a member and part of society, and, by general concession, cannot live happily and effectively, if he can live at all, out of society, we should be naturally led to expect that the principles of his internal constitution would be such as to correspond to the facts and incidents of his external condition. Society is necessary to him; and the principle of sOCIALITY corresponds to this necessity, by furnishing a firm and broad basis for the existence of society. And this correspondence indicates wisdom. But what shall we say of that wisdom or that goodness which, in connexion with the undeniable necessity of the social constitution of things, implants in the human mind a principle of repulsion, which tends to arm every man against his neighbour, and to scatter society in a thousand directions!

§ 139. Of this principle as it exists in the lower animals.

Before we advance to the direct proofs on this subject, there is one other consideration which, although of subordinate importance, may still be thought worthy of some notice. It is, that the principle of sociality exists, with but few exceptions, in the various classes of the lower animals. Those of the same class are found constantly herding together, and no small part of the pleasure which they experience appears to result from the fact of a participation in each other's company. Whenever they are compelled to separate from each other for any length of time, particularly the young animals, they almost invariably exhibit a high degree of uneasiness and unhappiness.

So strong is their desire of society, that animals which happen to be separated from those of their own kind will not unfrequently form a friendship with other animals, whose companionship, under other circumstances, would be far from being sought after.—If this principle is necessary in the lower animals, and contributes to their happiness, as it obviously does, why should not man, who stands equally in need of it, be put in possession of the benefits of the same principle? We certainly should expect to find it to be so.

§ 140. The existence of the principle shown from the conduct of children and youth.

We now proceed to remark, that the existence of the propensity under consideration is shown, in the first place, like that of some of the propensive principles of the last chapter, by what we notice in the early periods of life. No one is ignorant that infants and very young children exhibit a strong attachment to their parents and others who tend upon them, and a desire for their company, and uneasiness at their absence. When left alone, even for a very short time, they discover a great degree of unhappiness, which may sometimes be ascribed to fear, but more often to the mere sense of loneliness and the desire for society.

When other infants and children are brought into their company, whom they have never seen before, this propensity is at once shown in their smiles, their animated gestures, and sparkling eyes. And when they are old enough to go out and play in the streets, we find them almost always in groups. Their sports, their wanderings in fields and forests, their excursions in fishing and hunting, are all made in companies; and the privilege of amusing themselves in these ways, on the condition of not being allowed the attendance of others, would be deemed scarcely better than a punishment.

In corroboration of what has just been said, we may properly recur a moment to those strong attachments

which are formed in early life. Wherever we go, and whatever vicissitudes of fortune may attend us, our thoughts and affections revert with eagerness to the associates of our early days. The basis of this strong attachment, it can hardly be doubted, is to be sought for in the operations of the principle of sociality. It was under the influences of this principle that we so frequently sought them out; that we flew eagerly to their arms in the first moments of relaxation from duty; that we visited with them the banks of the river and the recesses of the forest; and grew up in the reciprocation of those charities and acts of kindness, which render that period of life so hallowed in the recollection. If this principle, so powerful in its operation, had not been implanted in the human bosom, we should have looked in vain for these marked results.

§ 141. The same shown from the facts of later life.

In the second place, this propensity, which shows itself with so much strength in children, continues to exist, and to give interesting and decisive proofs of its existence, in manhood and age. It is true that those who are further advanced in years, from the circumstance of their finding greater resources in themselves, are in general more capable of supporting retirement and solitude than children. But it is But it is very evident, in the maturity as well as in the earlier periods of life, that man's proper element (that in which alone he can secure the developement of his powers and be happy) is society, in some shape and in some degree. Hence the frequency of family meetings, of social and convivial parties, of commemorative celebrations, of religious, literary, and political assemblies, which constantly occur in all communities throughout the world, and which seem to be almost as necessary as the air they breathe, or their daily food.

It is true that some persons appear disposed to speak of these things as resulting from, or at least as very closely connected with, the comforts and conveniences

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of civilized life. In other words, they suppose that men seek society, not from any natural impulse of the mind, but merely from the anticipation of the benefits which society, considered as the source and centre of civilization and the arts, will be likely to confer. That the desire of society is increased by this consideration, it is perhaps not necessary either to affirm or deny; but that it is originated or created by such views, which is the statement that we object to, is a position which does not appear at all warranted by the facts that are presented to our notice. Look, for instance, at those portions of the human race that are confessedly in a state of barbarism, and consider the results which are there presented. Where do we find the social principle showing itself more strongly than among groups of wandering Gipsies, than in the tents of stern and restless Arabs, in the wigwams and hunting-parties of American savages, or the cheerless abodes of the poor and desolate Esquimaux? Unpolished in manners, and rough in temper, and wanting even the necessaries of life, it must be something more than the mere refinements and pleasures of civilization which brings them together, day after day and night after night, and makes the walls of their miserable habitations tremble with their tumultuous companionship.-It is one of the excellences of this great principle, that it is the friend of the ignorant and the wretched. Bereft of those comforts which are generally understood to attend the condition of refinement and opulence, they are prompted by the operations of the social principle to throw themselves into the arms of their fellow-men; and, as the ordinary result, they find, in the mere naked fact of social intercourse, a degree of substantial consolation.

§ 142. The social principle exists in the enemies of society. It may be remarked, in reply to what has been said, that there are individuals, and even masses or bodies of men, who are in a state of contention and war with society, and in whom, of course, the social principle

has no place. The fact which is stated we do not deny; but the conclusion which is drawn from it does not follow, and is not true. On the contrary, it is a striking fact, that the social principle, although restricted in its range, is found to exist, with undiminished strength, in those who are generally regarded as the outcasts and enemies of society. These men would be more desolate and wretched than they are if there were not some with whom they could associate; some whom they could call their friends, and with whom they could participate in their good or evil fortune. The influence of the desire of esteem may be overruled and annulled; the sentiments of filial and parental affection may be extinguished; the light of conscience may be put out; and yet they may find themselves unable (and, in point of fact, this is almost invariably the case) to sunder entirely the tie which binds them to their fellow-men. They can bear the pain, so insupportable to an unperverted and ingenuous mind, of having their names cast out as evil, but they are unable to endure the wretchedness of an entire and absolute seclusion from society.

§ 143. Proofs of the natural desire of society from the confessions and conduct of those who have been deprived of it.

Let us now attend a moment, in the third place, to the condition of those who are so unfortunate as to be separated from society, particularly from their friends. We presume to say that it will require no further proof than is involved in the mere statement itself, when we assert that the grief they suffer is in all ordinary cases sincere and deep, and that, not unfrequently, it is extreme. If the record of human misery could at once be unfolded to our view, it would abundantly appear in respect to multitudes who have perished in prison and in exile, that it was the deprivation of human society, particularly the society of their friends, which infused the deadliest ingredient into their cup of suffering. If the social propensity be not natural to us, it is not easy to explain why an

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