πάντες· μένω, μεῖνον· ἄρχω, ἦρχον. See §§ 102, 107, and

108.

5. The union of words; as qilótos, compounded of pilos and θεός.

The ac

CRASIS. In crasis (§ 71), the accent of the first word is omitted. cent of the second remains without change, except as required by Rule VI. in § 108 ; as ταὐτό, for τὸ αὐτό· τἆλλα, for τὰ ἄλλα.

critics prefer τἄλλα.

Yet some of the best

6. The connexion of words in discourse, as follows.

A. GRAVE ACCENT.

§ 113. Oxytones, not closing a sentence, soften their tone, and are then marked with the grave accent (§ 19); as, Βέβαια δ ̓ οὐδεὶς θνητὸς εὐτυχεῖ γεγώς.

Euripides.

EXCEPTION. The interrogative ris, and words followed by enclitics (§ 116), never take the grave; e. g. rís ; who art thou?

The syllable, over which the grave accent is written, is still regarded as acute, although its tone is softened, and the word to which it belongs is still termed an oxytone. Syllables, strictly grave, are never marked, except for grammatical illustration, as in § 103.

$114. In prepositions, the accent is usually thrown back upon the penult, when they follow the words which they would regularly precede, or take the place of compound verbs, or are used adverbially; as, δόμων ύπερ, for ὑπὲρ δόμων· πάρα, for лάeστ лe, in the sense of exceedingly. This change of the accent is termed anastrophe (ἀναστροφή, from ἀναστρέφω, to turn back).

C. PROCLITICS.

$115. A few monosyllables, beginning with a vowel, are commonly connected in accentuation with the following word, and lose, in consequence, their proper accent. They are hence called atonics (ätova, toneless), or with more precision, proclitics (nooxhivw, to lean forward). They are

1. The aspirated forms of the article, ô, ǹ, oi, ai.

2. The adverb où, not.

3. The prepositions is, into, ev, in, 5, out of. 4. The conjunctions si, if, ws, as.

The proclitics retain their accent, when they close a sentence, or follow the word which they would regularly precede. Hence, où dñra · but, xãs yàg oű• ὡς Θεός, but, Θεὸς ὥς· ἐκ κακῶν, but κακῶν ἔξ.

D. ENCLITICS.

$116. Words which are attached, in accentuation, to the preceding word, are called enclitics (¿yxhıtıxós, from ¿yxλivw, to lean upon). They are,

1. The following oblique cases of the personal pronouns ;

2. The indefinite pronoun rìs, in all its cases, and the indefinite adverbs beginning with π; ποτέ, πού, πώς, δε.

3. The present indicative of siui and pnui, except the second person singular.

4. The particles γέ, νύν, πέρ, τέ, τοί.

5. The inseparable preposition dɛ.

$117. Rule.

An enclitic throws back its tone, in the form of the acute accent, upon the ultima of the preceding word; as, ἄνθρωπός ἐστι· δεῖξόν μοι· εἴ τίς τινά φησί μοι παρεῖναι.

If the ultima of the preceding word has already an accent, the accent of the enclitic unites with it, and disappears; as, άvng ris· Qiλão σs.

The accent of the enclitic, if a monosyllable, is also lost after a paroxytone; as, φίλος μου.

An enclitic retains its accent,

1. At the beginning of a clause; as, roũ vàg xgáros icrì péyistov.

2. After the apostrophe; as, #oλλoì d' sioív.

3. If it is emphatic; où Kũgov, åλλà vé, not Cyrus, but you.

4. If it is a personal pronoun, preceded by a preposition which governs it; as, παρὰ σοί, περὶ σοῦ, πρὸς σέ. But πρός με occurs.

5. If it is a dissyllable, preceded by a paroxytone; as, ñv λóyos worì ivavríos σφίσιν.

When orí is prominent in a sentence, it becomes a paroxytone; as, roÛT' lor, it is so.

REMARK. An enclitic is often joined in writing to the preceding word, as if forming with it but one compound word; thus, μήτις, οὐδέποτε, ὥστε.

$118. A word which neither leans upon the following nor upon the preceding word, but stands, as it were, erect, is called, in distinction from the proclitics and enclitics, an orthotone (ogótoros, erect in tone).

Both proclitics and enclitics are more abundant in English than in Greek, and these classes of words furnish another strong analogy between the Greek and the English accent (§ 101). The words in English, which are used in translating the Greek proclitics and enclitics, are themselves, for the most part, either proclitic or enclitic. Thus, in the sentence, Give me the book (pronounced Givme thebook), the pronoun me is enclitic, and the article the, proclitic. In the sentence, If John's in the house, don't tell him a word of this, the words If, in, the, a, and of, are proclitics, and the words is, not, and him, enclitics.

$119. To those who do not follow the written accent in pronunciation, it is still useful, as serving,

1. To distinguish different words, or different senses of the same word; as siuí (enclitic), to be, tips, to go; o, the, %, which; Tórs; when? Tori (encl.), once; aλa, other things, åλλá, but; Xıdoßóños, throwing stones, adóßodos, thrown at with stones.

2. To distinguish different forms of the same word; as the optative a δεύσαι, the infinitive παιδεῦσαι, and the imperative παίδευσαι, from παιδεύω, to educate.

3. To ascertain the quantity of the doubtful vowels (§ 52). From the general rules of accent (§§ 107, 108), we know, that,

a. Every circumfered vowel is long; as in πρᾶγμα, δελφίνες, πρεσβῦτις. b. In paroxylones, if the vowel of the ultima is short, the vowel of the penult is also short; and, on the other hand, if the vowel of the penult is long, the vowel of the ultima is also long. Hence, in uavádos, xaexívos, and χλαμύδος, the vowel of the penult is short ; and, in Λήδα, φοίνιξ, and κώμυς, the vowel of the ultima is long.

c. In proparoxytones and properispomena, the vowel of the ultima is short; as in ἄρουρα, δύναμις, πέλεκυς· βῶλαξ, πρᾶξις, διώρυξ.

4. To show the original form of words. Thus the circumflex, over riμ, φιλῶ, δηλῶ, marks them as contract forms of the pure verbs, τιμάω, φιλέω, δηλόω.

5. To show how words are employed in the sentence; as in cases of anastrophe (§ 114), and where the accent is retained by proclitics and enclitics (§§ 115, 117).

$120. Upon some of the minute points of accentuation, authorities and critics differ. But this only furnishes another point of analogy between the Greek accent and our own. Indeed, there is no subject, either in grammar, or in any other science, upon all the minutiae of which there is a perfect oneness of opinion.

BOOK III.

ETYMOLOGY.

Επεα πτερόεντα. Homer.

"Words are the soul's wing'd messengers, that fly
Abroad upon her errands."

INTRODUCTION.

§ 121. Articulate sounds, employed as signs, become WORDS.

Words are, therefore, the SIGNIFICANT ELEMENTS of language (significans, forming a sign, from signum, sign, and facio, to make), as letters, and the characters employed with them (§ 7), are its written elements, and vowels, consonants, and breathings (§ 37) are its vocal elements. See §§ 1 and

40.

122. In the sentence, "John walks," there are two words, of which the first denotes the person who is spoken of, and the second expresses what is said of him. It is John who is spoken of, and it is said of him, that he walks. The first word, John, we call the SUBJECT of the sentence (subjectus, placed beneath, as if the foundation of the sentence); the second, walks, we call the PREDICATE (prædicatus, made known, said, affirmed).

In every complete sentence ($6), there must be both a predicate and a subject, because there must be something

which is said, and there must be some person or thing, about which it is said.

In the sentences, "William runs," "Alexander conquered," "soldiers fight," " men suffer," trees grow," ," "flowers bloom," "beauty fades," "I walk," "you ride," "he sails," the words, William, Alexander, soldiers, men, trees, flowers, beauty, I, you, and he, are the subjects; and the words, runs, conquered, fight, suffer, grow, bloom, fades, walk, ride, sails, are the predi

cates.

§ 123. The subject of a sentence may be either the name of the person or thing which is spoken of, or it may be a word used instead of the name, to show what person or thing is meant.

Thus, in the sentences above, the words, William, Alexander, soldiers, men, trees, flowers, and beauty, are names of the persons or things which are spoken of; while the words, I, you, and he, which are not the names of any persons, are still used in the place of names, to show who are meant.

Words which are names, are termed NOUNS (nomen, name); words which are used instead of names, PRONOUNS (pronomen, from pro, for, and nomen, name).

$124. A name may be either particular or general; that is, it may either belong to an individual or to a class.

Thus William and Alexander are names belonging to individuals; while soldiers, men, trees, and flowers, are names belonging, not to individuals, but to classes.

Particular names are termed proper names or nouns (proprius, particular); and general names are termed common names or nouns (communis, common, general).

Thus William, Alexander, Athens, Greece, Olympus, Euphrates, Iliad, Constitution, Tray, and Bucephalus, are proper nouns, because they are the names of individual persons, places, &c. ; while boy, man, city, country, mountain, river, book, ship, dog, and horse, are the corresponding common nouns, because they are the names of the classes to which these individuals belong.

Common nouns are also termed appellatives (appello, to call).

$125. The name of a property, considered abstractly, that is, apart from any person or thing to which it belongs, is termed an abstract noun (abstractus, separated); as beauty, wisdom, greatness, quiet, action.

A word, on the other hand, which represents a property as belonging to some person or thing, is termed concrete (concrātus, grown together, adhering).