incalculable series of happy chances, observations, deductions, and trials of every kind, man has arrived at the possession of a metal hatchet or arrow-head. It is from this point that the industry of civilised races really dates. Starting from this, observations are grouped together systematically till they become sciences, and chemistry, physics, mineralogy, and mechanics multiply their discoveries, and water, wind, steam, and electricity lend to man's feeble arms the aid of their colossal powers.

Every process of production in agriculture, in manufactures, and in the means of transport is continually being perfected by the application of new scientific discoveries. The progress of the useful arts may be summed up in the single sentence, "every industry becomes a science." A comparison of the widely different degrees of welfare enjoyed by different races confirms the truth of this observation. The savages of Australia live in the most terrible destitution in the same country in which Englishmen are overflowing with wealth. The former know only how to use their hands, the latter, under the guidance of science, oblige the forces of nature and properties of matter to help them in production. The inhabitants of the United States are in every respect better provided than those of Brazil. They make greater use of machinery and scientific processes than do the Brazilians, and this because among Americans knowledge is much. more widely diffused.

Progress in the social sciences, philosophy, morals, law, political economy, and politics, enables man to gain a better knowledge of himself, to fulfil his duties, to respect justice, and to organise society. It thus helps to favour the production of wealth fully as much as do the natural sciences. Hence we may conclude that a country desirous of increasing its prosperity should cultivate all the sciences, and shrink from no sacrifice necessary to forward their advance or diffuse the knowledge of their discoveries.

§ 19. Influence of Instruction and Education on the Productiveness of Labour.

This point has been admirably elucidated by an Italian economist, Luigi Cossa. Instruction and education aid in increasing the productiveness of labour by augmenting, and, still more, by giving a better direction to the employment of man's powers. To this end there is needed in the first place a general and "humane" education; in the second, one of a more special and professional character. In each of these the bodily, mental, and moral faculties must alike be exercised and cultivated.

The bodily faculties are maintained and improved by hygienics and by gymnastics, as the Greeks of old so admirably understood. Thus in the Apologue of Procidus, Virtue says to Hercules, "Do you wish your body to be strong? Remember to accustom

it to the governance of the soul, and to exercise it amid fatigue and sweat."

Intellectual culture, in so far as it aims at increasing the productiveness of labour, in the first place, must exercise the attention, the memory, and, above all, the reasoning powers; in the second, must instil a knowledge of the laws both of the physical and moral world, which wield so great an influence over economic activity. Lastly, the cultivation of the moral faculties should stimulate the practical virtues, such as the love of work, forethought, and the spirit of thrift; combat vicious inclinations, such as idleness and prodigality, and aim at strengthening the whole character so as to overcome the obstacles of every kind which impede the path of industrial progress.

To diffuse professional education special institutions must be organised, such as schools of mines, colleges of agriculture, and technical and industrial schools of all descriptions. Every expense incurred with this object will be repaid a hundred fold by the increase of wealth. For the vast majority of men, however, as J. S. Mill remarks, the greater aim of all mental cultivation should be the development of that common sense which will teach a sound appreciation of the circumstances amid which they live, and of the consequences which wait upon their actions.

As an illustration of the manner in which the ancients understood mental and bodily education,

we may cite the example of Marcus Aurelius. This emperor went about his palace in the robe of a philosopher, slept on a skin stretched on the earth, studied philosophy, jurisprudence, rhetoric, geometry, and music, and at the same time devoted several hours in every day to such bodily exercise as tennis, running, riding, wrestling, and even boxing.

§ 20. Obstacles Opposed by Ignorance to the Productiveness of Labour.

If it be true that knowledge is the principal source of our welfare, the greater part of our misfortunes must be caused by ignorance. Remembering how earnestly man pursues his good, it is plain that did he know clearly in what it consists, and above all how it is to be reached, he would certainly attain all the happiness of which life on this earth is capable. But amid the intricacies of social life, man fails to discern where his true interest lies, and, too often, when there are no just laws to oppose him, he is ready to sacrifice the good of others to his own selfishness.

Among carnivorous animals the strong devour the weak. Among men, since cannibalism has proved insufficient, the strong have found a more profitable way of using the weak than eating them, this is, to force them to labour, while depriving them, by different methods, of the fruits of their toil. Hence come slavery, war, revolutions and all

the train of miseries which wickedness and violence have let loose upon mankind.

In ancient times robbery was held the most honourable way of acquiring wealth. This is plainly shown by a passage from an heroic song of Tyrtæus, the patriot poet of Greece. "Everywhere,” he sings, "we reign as masters. Wherever we approach all things are ours. We reap the vintage with our lances, our labour is done by our swords." Aristotle considers war and slave-hunting as legitimate methods of acquiring wealth. "The art of war," he writes, "is a natural method of acquisition. War is a kind of hunt for such beasts and men as are born to obey, and yet refuse to be enslaved" (Politics, i. 5). In a phrase, stamped with all the sharpness of a Roman medal, Tacitus shows us the same idea prevailing among the Germans: Nec arare terram aut exspectare annum tam facile persuaderis, quam vocare hostem et vulnera mereri. Pigrum quin immo et iners videtur sudore acquirere quod possis sanguine parare (Germania, xiv.).-" Nor are they as easily persuaded to plough the earth and to wait for the year's produce as to challenge an enemy and earn the honour of wounds. Nay, they actually think it tame and stupid to acquire by the sweat of toil what they might win by their blood." Despite the high aptitudes of their race and the excellence of their political and communal institutions, the Germans remained barbarians until the introduction of Christianity. Robbery maintained