by the Pope, followed their example. A multitude of suspected persons fled to the Grisons and to other parts of Switzerland. The academies at Modena and elsewhere were broken up. The Duchess of Ferrara was compelled to part from all of her Protestant friends, and dependants, and was herself subjected to constraint by her husband. The Protestant church of Locarno was driven out, under circumstances of great hardship, and found an asylum in Switzerland. Imprisonment, torture, and the flames were everywhere employed for the destruction of heterodox opinions. At Venice the practice was to take the unhappy victim out upon the sea at midnight and to place him on a plank, between two boats, which were rowed in opposite directions, leaving him to sink beneath the waves. Many distinguished men were banished; others, as Aonio Paleario and Carnesecchi, were put to death. The Waldensian settlement in Calabria was barbarously massacred. One essential part of the work of the Inquisition, and a part in which it attained to surprising success, was the suppression of heretical books. The booksellers were obliged to purge their stock to an extent that was almost ruinous to their business. So vigilant was the detective police of the Inquisition, that of the thousands of copies of the evangelical book on the "Benefits of Christ," it was long supposed that not one was left. It is only within a recent period that a few surviving copies have come to light. As a part of the repressive system of Caraffa, the "Index" of prohibited books was established. Besides the particular authors and books which were condemned, there was a list of more than sixty printers, all of whose publications were prohibited. Caraffa put upon the Index the Consilium or Advice, which in connection with Sadolet and others he himself had offered to Paul III., on the subject of a reformation, and in which ecclesiastical abuses

1 Macaulay, in his Review of Ranke's History of the Popes (Ed. Rev., 1840), said of this book: "It is now as hopelessly lost as the second decade of Livy,"

had been freely censured.1 Later, under the auspices of Sixtus V., the "Index Expurgatorius" arose, for the condemnation, not of entire works, but of particular passages in permitted books. The sweeping persecution which was undertaken by the Catholic Reaction did not spare the evangelical Catholics, whose views of Justification were obnoxious to the faction that had gained the ascendency. They were regarded and treated as little better than avowed enemies of the Church. Even Cardinal Pole, who had forsaken England rather than accede to the measures of Henry VIII., and had been made Papal Legate and Archbishop of Canterbury under Mary, was in disgrace at the time of his death, which was simultaneous with that of the Queen. Cardinal Morone, the Archbishop of Modena, charged with circulating Paleario's book on the Atonement, with denying the merit of good works, and with like offenses, was imprisoned for about two years, until the death of Paul IV., in 1559, set him free. The characteristic spirit of the dominant party is seen in the impracticable demand of this Pope that the sequestered property of the monasteries in England should be restored. This party succeeded in virtually extinguishing Protestantism in Italy.

In Spain a literary spirit had early arisen from the influence of the Arabic schools.2 The Erasmian culture found a cordial reception. "The Complutensian Polyglot" was an edition of the Scriptures that reflects much credit upon Cardinal Ximenes, by whom it was issued. Yet, he was opposed to rendering the Bible into the vernacular of the people, and was a supporter of the Inquisition. The resentment which this odious tribunal awakened, wherever a love of freedom lingered, predis

1 For the proof of this, see McCrie, p. 61.

2 McCrie, History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain in the Sixteenth Century (new ed., 1856). This work is the companion of the History of the Reformation in Italy, and of scarcely less value.

SPANISH PROTESTANTS.

407

As

posed some to the acceptance of the doctrine which it persecuted. The intercourse with Germany and the Netherlands, into which many Spaniards, both laymen and clergy, were brought from the common relation of these countries to Charles V., made the Protestant doctrines familiar to many, of whom not a few regarded them with favor. It was observed that Spanish ecclesiastics who sojourned in England after the marriage of Philip II. to Mary, came back to their country, tinged with the heresy which they had gone forth to oppose. The war of Charles V. against Clement VII., which led to the sack of Rome and the imprisonment of the Pontiff, and the presence of a great body of Spanish clergy and nobles at the Diet of Augsburg, where the Protestants presented their noble confession, were events not without a favorable influence in the same direction. early as 1519, the famous printer of Basel, John Froben, sent to Spain a collection of Luther's tracts in Latin, and during the next year the Reformer's commentary on the Galatians, in which his doctrine was fully exhibited, was translated into Spanish. Spanish translations of the Bible were printed at Antwerp and Venice, and notwithstanding the watchfulness of the Inquisition, copies of them, as well as other publications of the Protestants, were introduced into Spain in large numbers. Some Spaniards perished abroad, martyrs to the Protestant faith; as Jayme Enzinas, a cultivated scholar, who was burned at Rome in 1546, and Juan Diaz, who was assassinated in Germany by a fanatical brother, who had tried in vain to convert him, and who, having accomplished his act of bloody fratricide, escaped into Italy and was protected from punishment. It was at Seville and Valladolid that Protestantism obtained most adherents. Those who adopted the reformed interpretation of the Gospel, generally contented themselves with promulgating it, without an open attack on the Catholic theology or the

Church. It was the doctrine of justification by faith alone which, here as in Italy, gained most currency. In Seville the evangelical views were introduced by Rodrigo de Valero, a man of rank and fashion, whose character had been transformed by the reception of them, and who promulgated them in conversation and in expositions of the Scripture to private circles. He was saved from the flames only by the favor of persons in authority, but was imprisoned in a convent. The most eminent preachers of the city, Dr. John Egidius, and Constantine Ponce de la Fuente, who had been chaplain of the Emperor, enlisted in the new movement. The predominant opinion in Seville was on the side of this real, though covert Protestantism. It found a reception, also, in cloisters of the city, especially in one belonging to the Hieronymites. Both in Seville and Valladolid there were secret churches, fully organized, and meeting in privacy for Protestant worship. In Valladolid the Protestant cause had a distinguished leader in the person of Augustine Cazalla, the Imperial chaplain, who was put to death by the Inquisition in 1559. There were probably two thousand persons in various parts of Spain who were united in the Protestant faith and held private meetings for a number of years. A large proportion of them were persons distinguished for their rank or learning. The discovery of these secret associations at Seville and Valladolid stimulated the Inquisition to redoubled exertions. The flight of many facilitated the detection of others who remained. The dungeons were filled and the terrible implements of torture were used to extort confessions not only from men, but from refined and delicately trained women. In 1559 and 1560, two great autos da fé were held in the two cities where heresy had taken the firmest root. The ceremonies were arranged with a view to strike terror to the hearts of the sufferers themselves and of the great throngs that gathered as spectators of the scene. The condemned

EXTIRPATION OF PROTESTANTISM IN SPAIN.

409 were burned alive, those who would accept the offices of a priest, however, having the privilege of being strangled before their bodies were cast into the fire. The King and royal family, the great personages of the court, of both sexes, gave countenance to the proceedings by their presence. Similar autos da fé occurred in various other places, with every circumstance calculated to inspire fear in the beholders. The officers of the Inquisition were so active and vigilant, and so merciless, that there was no hope for any who were inclined to Protestant opinions, save in flight; and even this was difficult. Covetousness allied itself to fanaticism, for the forfeiture of all property was a part of the penalty invariably visited upon heresy. Thus Protestantism was eradicated.1 The restraints laid upon liberty of teaching smothered the intellectual life of the country.

In Spain, as in Italy, the persecution did not spare the Evangelical Catholics. Among these was Bartolomé de Carranza, Archbishop of Toledo and Primate of Spain, who had stood among the advocates of gratuitous justification at the Council of Trent. He had accompanied Philip II. to England and taken part in examining Protestants who perished at the stake under Mary. He was denounced to the Inquisition and imprisoned at Valladolid. His intimacy with Pole, and with Morone, Flaminio, and other eminent Italians who were inclined to evangelical doctrine, was one fact brought up against him. His catechism, partly for its alleged leaning, in some points, to the Lutheran theology, and partly because it was written in the vulgar tongue, was the principal basis of the accusation. He was charged with not having ac cused before the Holy Office leading Spanish Protestants, of whose sentiments he had privately expressed his disapprobation. At the end of seven years he was taken to

1 For details of persecution, see De Castros, Spanish Protestants (London,