the Middle Ages had kept in check, re-appeared, in an excessive measure, in the devotees of pagan literature. They burned incense to the great on whom they depended for patronage and advancement, but carried into their disputes with one another an acrimony and fierceness without previous example. Poggio, one of the principal men of letters in the first half of the fifteenth century, infused into his polemical writings a ferocity which is only less repulsive than the gross obscenity that defiles other works from his pen. The Italian Humanists did a vast work of a negative sort in sweeping away superstition, and in undermining the credit of ecclesiastics and of their dogmas. Their positive services in behalf of a more enlightened religion are of less account. Yet good fruit often grew out of the attention that was given to the Scriptures. Academies, or private literary associations, sprang up in the principal cities; and in them theological topics were discussed with freedom. The wide-spread culture formed a soil in which the seed of the new doctrine, under favorable circumstances, might germinate.3

At an early day, the writings of Luther and of the other Reformers were widely disseminated in Italy. They were circulated under fictitious names, and thus

1 Tiraboschi, Storia della Letteratura Ital., vi. 1027 seq. On Poggio, see also Hallam, Intr. to the Lit. of Europe, i. 66. Shepherd, Life of Poggio, p. 460. Shepherd says of his indecency and levity, that they were "rather vices of the times than of the man."

2 Upon the moral and religious tone, as well as upon the other characteristics of the Renaissance, there are interesting statements in Burckhardt, Die Cultur d. Renaissance in Italien (Basel, 1860). An excellent sketch of the Renaissance in Italy, in its various features, is given by Gregorovius, Geschichte d. Stadt Rom im Mittelalter, vol. vii. c. vi. (Stuttgart, 1870.)

3 Gerdesius, Specimen Italia Reformata (Lugd. Bat., 1765). An excellent work on the Reformation in Italy is that of Dr. McCrie, History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Italy (new edition, 1856). This, together with the History of the Reformation in Spain, by the same author, are among the most valuable of the monographs relating to the period of the Reformation. Ranke, History of the Popes of Rome during the 16th and 17th Centuries, (the sequel of an earlier work, Die Fürsten u. Völker von südl. Europa), presents much additional matter of extreme value.

CHARACTER OF ITALIAN PROTESTANTISM.

391

eluded the vigilance of the ecclesiastical authorities.1 The war between Charles V. and the Pope, that broke out in 1526, brought a host of Lutheran soldiers into Italy, many of whom, after the sack of Rome, remained long at Naples. Not only by their direct influence, but by the freedom which their presence occasioned during the progress of hostilities, the new doctrine was disseminated. The Augustinian theology took root in many minds, and produced a greater or less sympathy with the Protestant movement. The peculiarity in the case of Italy, and, still more, of Spain, is, that Protestantism could not avow itself without being, instantly smothered. Decided Protestantism could not live except in concealment. Protestant worshippers could exist only as secret societies. In considering the Reformation in these countries, we must take into view the real but unavowed Protestantism; and also the leanings toward the Protestant system which were not sufficient to prompt to a renunciation of the old Church, or were repressed before they could ripen into full convictions. There were some who only hoped for the removal of the corruption that existed in the Papal court and throughout the Catholic Church. Another class sympathized with the Reformers in matters of doctrine, especially on the subject of Justification, but were not disposed to alter materially the existing polity or forms of worship. Still another class were deterred by timidity, or lack of earnestness, or some more commendable motive, from declaring in favor of the Protestant system which they, at heart, adopted.2 Protestantism in Italy was thus a thing of degrees; and in its earlier stages developed itself in connection with tendencies. which diverged into the reactionary, defensive, and

1 Melancthon's Loci Communes were printed at Venice, the name of the author being given on the title-page, as Ippofilo da Terra Nigra, McCrie, p. 29. See also Cantu, Storia della Lett. Ital., p. 287.

2 McCrie, p. 102.

aggressive force to which the Catholic Church owed its restoration.

Before the death of Leo X., a reverent, devotional spirit, opposed to the sceptical and epicurean tone of society, manifested itself among a class of educated Italians. Fifty or sixty persons united at Rome in what they called the Oratory of Divine Love, and held meetings for worship and mutual edification. Among them were men who afterwards reached the highest distinction, but were destined to separate from one another in their views of Reform: Caraffa, Contarini, Sadolet, Giberto, all of whom were subsequently made cardinals. The common bond among them was the earnest desire for the removal of abuses, and for the moral reformation of the Church in its head and members. Contarini may be considered the head of those who espoused a doctrine of Justification, not materially distinguished from that of Luther. With him were found, a few years later, at Venice, besides former associates, Flaminio, a thorough believer in the evangelical idea of gratuitous salvation, and Reginald Pole, who adopted the same opinion. This party of Evangelical Catholics were devoted to the Catholic Church, and to the unity of it. Their aim was to purify the existing body; but in their views of the great doctrine, which formed the original ground of controversy, they stood in a position to meet and conciliate the Protestants. Their doctrine of Justification, bringing with it a greater or less inclination to other doctrinal changes in keeping with it, spread among the intelligent classes throughout Italy.

In Ferrara, the reformed opinions were encouraged and protected by Renée or Renata, the wife of Hercules II., who was equally distinguished for her learning and her personal attractions. At her Court the French poet, Clement Marot, found a refuge; and here Calvin resided for some months, under an assumed name. Among the

PROGRESS OF PROTESTANTISM IN ITALY.

393 professors in the University at Ferrara was Morata, the father of the celebrated Olympia Morata, and, like her, imbued with evangelical opinions. At Modena, which was renowned for the culture of its inhabitants, the new doctrine found a hospitable reception; especially among the members of the academy, who looked with contempt on the priests and monks. Cardinal Morone, the Bishop of Modena, who had been absent in Germany on missions from the Pope, writes, in 1542: "Wherever I go, and from all quarters, I hear that the city has become Lutheran." In Florence, though it was the seat of the Medici, and furnished in this age two popes, Leo X. and Clement VII., many embraced the Protestant faith. Among them was Brucioli, who published, at Venice, a translation of the Scriptures, and a commentary on the whole Bible. Not less than three translators of the Bible in this period were born at Florence. At Bologna, Mollio, a celebrated teacher in the University, after the year 1533 taught the Protestant views on Justification and other points, until he was removed from his office by order of the Pope. Subsequently, through a letter to the Protestants of Bologna, from Bucer, and through another letter from them, we learn that they were numerous. Venice, where printing and the book-trade flourished, and where the internal police was less severe than elsewhere, offered the best advantages both for the safe reception and active diffusion of the reformed doctrines. "You give me joy," said Luther, in 1528, "by what you write of the Venetians receiving the word of God." Pietro Carnesecchi, who afterwards died for his faith, Lupetino, provincial of the Franciscans, who also perished as a martyr, and Baldassare Altieri, who acted as agent of the Protestant princes in Germany, were among the most efficient in diffusing the Protestant opinions.2 Padua, Verona, and other places within the Venetian 2 McCrie, p. 61.

1 McCrie, p. 54.

territory, likewise furnished adherents of the new faith. The same was true of the Milanese, where the contiguity to Switzerland, and the political changes in the duchy, opened avenues for the introduction of heresy.

In Naples, Juan Valdez, a Spaniard, Secretary of the Viceroy of Charles V., was an eloquent and influential supporter of the evangelical doctrine, and won to the full or partial adoption of it many persons many persons of distinction; including, it is thought, Vittoria Colonna and other members of the Colonna family. In many other places, a good beginning was made in the same direction. Not a few among the numerous gifted and cultivated women in that age, when zeal for the study of the ancient authors had become a pervading passion, were attracted to the evangelical doctrine. This doctrine gained many converts among the middle classes. In a decree of the Inquisition, three thousand school-masters were said to have espoused it. Caraffa informed Paul III. that "the whole of Italy was infected with the Lutheran heresy, which had been extensively embraced both by statesmen and ecclesiastics." 2 "Whole libraries," says Melancthon, in a letter written probably in 1540, "have been carried from the late fair into Italy." There is no doubt that the evangelical doctrine was favorably regarded by a large body of educated persons, for it was almost exclusively among these that it found sympathy. The most eminent preacher in Italy, Bernardino Ochino, General of the Capuchins, who drew crowds of admiring auditors at Venice, and wherever else he appeared in the pulpit, and Peter Martyr Vermigli, an honored member of the Augustinian order, who was hardly less distinguished, and a much abler theologian, were of this num

1 See the learned article on Valdez by Dr. Ed. Böhmer, in Herzog, RealEncycl. d. Theol. There were two brothers, Alfonso and Juan. Alfonso was also favorable to the Reformation. Dr. Bilmer presents a full description of the writings and opinions of Juan Valdez.

2 Quoted by McCrie, p. 113.