(18.) Y, to it, to them, thereto, of it, etc. This relative pronoun, of both genders and numbers, is used instead of à lui, à elle, en lui, etc. It is used of things, and also adverbially in the sense of there. J'y pense, I think of it. J'y donne mes soins, I devote my care to it. J'ai connu le malheur, et j'y sais compâtir. GUICHARD. N'y songeons plus, cher Paulin; plus j'y pense, Plus je sens chanceler ma cruelle constance. RACINE. I have known misfortune, and I can sympathize with it. Let us think no more of this, dear Paulin; the longer I think of it, the more I feel my cruel constancy waver. You have but little property; join my fortune to it. In whatever country I have been, I lived (there) as if I was to spend my life in it. (19.) Although numerous instances may be found in which French authors have used y with regard to persons, these are licenses which it is not desirable to imitate. § 40.-INDEFINITE Pronouns. (1.) The indefinite pronouns indicate persons and things without particularizing them; they are § 41.-REMARKS ON THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. (1.) AUTRUI, others. This pronoun is applied only to persons. It has no change of form for gender or number, and is used only as an indirect regimen. L'honnête homme est discret; il remarque les défauts d'autrui, mais il n'en parle jamais. ST. ÉVREMOND. Ne fais point à autrui ce que tu ne voudrais pas qu'on te fît. The gentleman is discreet; he observes the defects of others, but never alludes to them. Do not unto others that which thou wouldst not like to be done unto thee. When this pronoun is absolute, ́(2.) CHACUN, every one, each one. and means every one, everybody, it is invariable. Le sens commun n'est pas chose Common sense is no cor.imon thing, though every one believes he has enough of it. Every one bows before the fortu DESTOUCHES. nate. (3.) When chacun is used relatively, it may take the form of the £minine. Chacune de nous (des femmes) se Every one of us (women) thought prétendait supérieure aux autres en herself superior in beauty to the beauté. MONTESQUIEU. others. (4.) ON (one, people, they) is always in the nominative; and although always construed with a verb in the third person singular, it conveys most generally the idea of plurality. It is commonly used in indefinite sentences. On dit, people say, they say, it is said. On garde sans remords ce qu'on acquiert sans crime. CORNEILLE. On parle, somebody speaks, etc. We (one, people) keep without remorse that which we (one, people) acquire without crime. We (people, they) read again and again all Racine; we (etc.) select in Voltaire. We conquer vice only by avoid ing it. (5.) On, coming immediately after the words et, si, ou, and qui, is generally preceded by the article 7, used for euphony. Ce que l'on conçoit bien, s'exprime clairement. BOILEAU. C'est d'un roi que l'on tient cette maxime auguste, Que jamais on n'est grand, qu'autant que l'on est juste. BOILEAU. That which we understand well, we express clearly. It is from a king that we derive this august maxim, that one is only great in proportion as he is just. (6.) PERSONNE, no one, nobody, used as an indefinite pronoun, is always masculine and singular. When used as nominative to a verb expressed, it is followed by ne. Il n'est personne qui ne cherche à se rendre heureux.-Chinese thought. Personne ne veut être plaint de ses VAUVENARGUES. erreurs. NOTE.-The word personne, used person, is of the feminine gender. There is no one who does not seek to render himself happy. No one wishes to be pitied on account of his mistakes. as a noun, and meaning a particular (7.) QUELQU'UN, somebody, some one, any one, anybody, used absolutely, is invariable. Envier quelqu'un c'est s'avouer son inférieur. MLLE. DE L'ESPINASSE. Quelqu'un a-t-il jamais douté sérieusement de l'existence de Dieu? GIRAULT-DUVIVIER. To envy any one is confessing one's self his inferior. Has any one ever had serious doubts of the existence of God? (8.) Quelqu'un, used relatively, changes for gender and number. It has then the sense of some of, some one of. Connaissez-vous quelqu'une de ces dames, quelques-uns de ces messieurs? GIRAULT-DUVIVIER. Do you know any one of those ladies, any of those gentlemen? (9.) QUICONQUE, whoever, whosoever, is generally masculine, and has no plural. It is only said of persons: Quiconque flatte ses maîtres, les trahit. MASSILLON. Quiconque est capable de mentir, est indigne d'être compté au nombre des hommes. FÉNELON. Quiconque est soupçonneux, invite la trahison. Whoever flatters his masters, betrays them. Whoever is capable of falsehood is unworthy to be counted among the number of men. Whoever is suspicious, invites treachery. (10.) L'UN L'AUTRE, one another, each other, the one and the other. This pronoun makes in the feminine l'une l'autre, and in the plural les uns les autres, les unes les autres: Tout le monde se confiait l'un d l'autre cette confidence. RULHIÈRES. Tout le peuple suivit Virginie, les uns par curiosité, les autres par considération pour Icilius. VERTOT. Il y a deux sortes de ruines; l'une l'ouvrage du temps, l'autre l'ouvrage des hommes. CHATEAUBRIAND. Every body confided one to another this communication. All the people followed Virginia, some through curiosity, some through respect for Icilius. There are two sorts of ruins; one the work of time, the other the work of men. (11.) L'un et L'AUTRE, LES UNS ET LES AUTRES, both. This expression may be used of persons and things: La Condamine a parcouru l'un et l'autre hémisphère.1 BUFFON. L'un et l'autre consul suivaient ses étendards. CORNEILLE. Sous l'une et l'autre époque, il périt un très grand nombre de citoyens. BARTHÉLEMY. Ils se réunissaient les uns et les autres contre l'ennemi commun. GIRAULT-DUVIVIER. La Condamine travelled over both hemispheres. Both consuls followed his stand ards. At both epochs, a large number of citizens perished. They united with one another against the common enemy. (12.) TEL, TELLE, such, many a person, many, is an indefinite pronoun in the following and in similar sentences: The noun is in the singular, because the word hémisphère is understood after the word l'un. This rule is observed by the best French authors. Tel donne, à pleines mains, qui n'oblige personne. CORNEILLE. Tel brille au second rang, qui s'éclipse au premier. VOLTAIRE. Tel est pris qui croyait prendre. LA FONTAINE. Telle, sans aucun attrait pour la retraite, se consacre au Seigneur par pure fierté. MASSILLON. Tels que l'on croit d'inutiles amis, dans le besoin rendent de bons services. BOURSAULT. Many a one may give bountifully, without obliging any one. Many a person may shine in the second rank, who is eclipsed in the first. Many are caught while attempting to catch others. Many [a nun] for whom retreat has no attractions, consecrates herself to the Lord through mere pride. Many friends whom we think useless, render us in our need valuable services. (13.) Tel, in connection with monsieur, madame, etc., as monsieur un tel, madame une telle, Mr., Mrs. such-a-one is used substantively. (14.) TOUT, every one, every thing. This word, employed absolutely, is invariable. (2.) The subject or nominative of a verb is the person or thing doing the action, or being in the condition expressed by the verb. It replies to the question qui est-ce qui? who? for persons; and qu'estce qui? which? what? for things. (3.) Verbs admit two kinds of regimen; the direct regimen and the indirect regimen. (4.) The direct regimen, or immediate object, is that which completes in a direct manner the signification of a verb; that is to say, without the aid of any other intermediate word. It answers to the question qui? whom? for persons, and quoi? what? for things. (5.) The indirect regimen, or remote object, is that which completes the signification of the verb by means of an intermediate word, such as the prepositions à, de, pour, avec, dans, etc.-à qui? to whom? de qui? of or from whom? pour qui? for whom? avec qui? etc., for persons; and à quoi? to what? de quoi? of or from what? etc., for things. (6.) Verbs are regular, irregular, or defective. § 44, (2). 843.-DIFFERENT SORTS OF VERBS. (1.) There are five sorts of verbs: active, passive, neuter, reflective or pronominal, and unipersonal. (2.) The active verb is that which expresses an action performed by the subject, and having some person or thing for its object. The object is the direct regimen of the verb. (3.) Every French verb after which quelqu'un, some one, quelque chose, something, may be placed, is an active verb. Thus, in the following sentences, protéger, changer, chanter, etc., are active verbs, because we may say protéger quelqu'un, to protect some one; changer quelque chose, to change something. Dieu protège l'innocence. RACINE. VOLTAIRE, Les cygnes ne chantent pas leur mort. BUFFON. God protects innocence. Swans do not sing their death. (4.) The passive verb is the contrary of the active verb. The active verb presents the subject as performing an action immediately directed towards an object; whereas the passive verb presents the subject as suffering or receiving an action. The passive verb is composed of the past participle of an active verb and the auxiliary être, to be. (See § 54.) (5.) The neuter verb marks, like the active verb, an action per formed by the subject; but this action can only reach the object indirectly; that is, by means of a preposition. Hence it is, that the neuter verb never has a direct regimen, and that the words quelqu'un and quelque chose cannot be placed after it. A neuter verb can never be used in the passive voice. Socrate passa le dernier jour de sa vie à discourir de l'immortalité de l'âme. L'ACADÉMIE. Le feu qui semble éteint, dort souvent sous sa cendre. CORNEILLE. Les Platéens citèrent les Lacédémoniens à comparaître devant les Amphictyons. LE GENDRE. Socrates spent the last day of his life in discoursing upon the immortality of the soul. The fire which seems extinct, sleeps often under its ashes. The Plateans cited the Lacedemonians to appear before the Amphio tyons. (6.) The reflective or pronominal verb is conjugated with two pro |