CHAPTER I.

EXISTENCE OF OBLIGATORY OR OBLIGATIVE FEELINGS.

251. Feelings of moral obligation distinct from feelings of moral approval and disapproval.

It was remarked in a former chapter that the Moral Sensibilities or Conscience would be found, on an examination of its elements, to resolve itself into two classes of feelings; viz., Moral Emotions, and Obligatory feelings or feelings of Moral Obligation. Having remarked, so far as seemed to be necessary, upon Moral Emotions, viz., the feelings of moral approval and disapproval, which are all the states of mind which properly come under that head, and also upon some of those collateral subjects which seemed to be particularly connected with them, we are now prepared to proceed to the consideration of the second class, viz., Obligatory feelings.

It is proper to remark here, that this class of mental states, considered as a separate and distinct class, has received but little notice in philosophical systems; having generally been confounded, under the familiar designations of conscience and the moral sense, with the moral emotions which have already been considered. On this account, therefore, and also for the reason that they have an important connexion with the actual operations and with the philosophy of the Will, it will be necessary to examine them with some degree of care.

◊ 252. Proof of the existence of obligatory feelings from consciousness.

Our first inquiry relates to the actual and distinct existence of the states of mind which now come under consideration. The existence of feelings of this description is evinced, in the first place, by our own CONSCIOUSNESS. We might safely appeal to the internal conviction and the recollections of any man whatever, and ask whether there have not been periods in the course of his life in which he has experienced a new and authoritative state

of mind; a peculiar but undefinable species of mental enforcement, which required him to perform some particular act, and to avoid doing some other act, even when his interests and his desires seemed to be averse to the requisition thus made upon him. And, if so, we have here an instance of moral obligation, a feeling or sentiment of duty, the precise thing which is meant when we say we ought to do or ought not to do.

Take a common and simple illustration. A person, in passing along the streets, saw an old man sitting by the wayside, who bore about him the most convincing marks of want, wretchedness, and sincerity in his applications for relief; he gave him bread, clothing, and money, conscious that it was done, not in view of any personal interest or gratification, or of any selfish object whatever, but under the impulse and guidance of a peculiar enforcement within, such as we commonly have when we speak of doing our duty; and, if so, he then and there had a distinct knowledge of the moral sentiment or feeling under consideration. And this knowledge was from Consciousness.

253. Further proof from the conduct of men.

The existence of feelings of obligation is further shown by the general conduct of men.-It cannot be denied that other motives, distinct from convictions of duty, often operate upon them. Their desires, hopes, fears, sympathies, their present and future interests, all have an ef fect. But it would certainly argue an evil opinion of human nature altogether unwarranted, to maintain that they are never governed by motives of a more exalted kind. In a multitude of cases they are found to perform what is incumbent upon them in opposition to their fears, in opposition to their sympathies, and their apparent interests. Different persons will undoubtedly estimate the amount of interested and selfish motives as greater or less, according as a greater or less portion of the good or evil of human nature has come within their own cognizance; but it is impossible, after a cautious and candid review of the principles of human action, to exclude entirely the elements of uprightness and honour.

If there is any truth in history, there have always been found, even in the most corrupt periods of society, upright and honourable men. And if we are at liberty to infer men's character from their actions, as assuredly we are, we may assert with confidence that there are such at the present time. But a man of true uprightness and honour is one who acts from the sentiment of duty, the feeling of moral obligation, in distinction from motives of an inferior kind.

254. Further proof from language and literature.

The existence of obligatory feelings is further proved, not only by each one's consciousness, and by the conduct of men generally, but by language and literature. In most languages, and probably in all, there are terms expressive of obligation, or a sentiment of duty. No account could be given of the progress of society, and of the situation and conduct of individuals, without making use of such terms. If the words rectitude, crime, uprightness, virtue, merit, vice, demerit, right, wrong, ought, obligation, duty, and others of like import, were struck out from the English tongue (and the same might be said of other languages), it would at once be found unequal to the expression of the phenomena which are constantly occurring in the affairs of men. Now, as these terms occur, it is rational to suppose that they intimate something, that they have a meaning, that they express a reality. But it does not appear how this can be said of them, unless we admit the actual existence of obligatory feelings.

Turning our attention from single words and phrases, if we enter into an examination of the literature of a language, we shall come to the same result.-A great portion of every nation's literature is employed in giving expression and emphasis to moral principles and sentiments. They find a conspicuous place in the most valuable speculations, not of professed moralists merely, but of historians, poets, orators, and legislators. But their frequent introduction would seem to be altogether misplaced, unsuitable, and unmeaning, if there were no real and permanent distinction between virtue and vice, between the sa

cred requisitions of duty and those of mere personal interest. One of the Roman historians* very happily remarks of the elder Cato, that he never performed an upright action in order that he might have the appearance of being an upright person in the view of men, but because he could not do otherwise (QUI NUNQUAM RECTE FECIT, UT FACERE VIDERETUR, SED QUIA ALITER FACERE NON POTERAT).

Every one who is familiar with the characteristic traits of Cato will assent to the justness of the remark; but still it would be nugatory and unmeaning without the existence of original principles, involving an internal and moral obligation. If any one will take the pains to peruse the writings of Tacitus in particular, he will fully see the bearing of these observations. That celebrated historian sketches, in colours dark and terrible, the pictures of cruelty and selfishness, treachery and deceit, but at the same time he diffuses over the nether horrors of flame and smoke the sunlike radiance of benevolence and patriotism, of honour and truth. Now, if you strike out from the human breast the emotions of approval and disapproval, and those feelings of obligation which are subsequently built upon them, you necessarily strike out, not only from Tacitus, but from almost all historians of acknowledged merit, the most eloquent and ennobling passages; everything, in fact, which places truth in opposition to falsehood, and contrasts meanness and selfism with justice, rectitude, and honour.

255. Further proof from the necessity of these feelings.

And, in connexion with the observations which have been brought forward, we may further ask, what would men be, or what would society be, without the basis of moral obligation? There must be somewhere a foundation of duty. It does not appear how the bond which unites neighbourhoods and states can be maintained with any requisite degree of permanency and strength without something of this kind. Annihilate this part of our constitution, and would not society be dissolved? Would not violence, and wrath, and utter confusion immediately

* Paterculus.

succeed? The natural desire of society, the sympathies, and the selfish interests of our nature, might do something by way of diminishing these evil results, but could not wholly prevent them. With the dislocation of the great controlling principles which regulate the action of the moral world, there would soon be an utter confusion in the movements of society, and all the unspeakable evils attendant on such a state of things.

We are aware it can be said that we have the feelings of approval and disapproval, which are of a moral nature. This is true. By means of these feelings we are enabled to pronounce a decision on the merit or demerit of the conduct of others; and they thus discharge an important office. It is undeniably necessary, when we consider the various relations we sustain to other accountable beings, that we should be able to pass a judgment on them. It is necessary also, when we consider our own nature and destinies, that there should be within ourselves some power of decision on our own conduct. Accordingly, the Moral Sensibility, in the exercise of emotions of approval and disapproval, effects this great object. But this is not enough. It is not only necessary to be able to distinguish between right and wrong, but to pursue the one and avoid the other. We need within us not only a monitor which shall assure us what right is, but something also which shall speak, as it were, with a voice of authority, and strongly urge us to do what is right. And this object is designed to be effected through the medium and agency of feelings of obligation.

Undoubtedly the two classes of feeling are closely connected; emotions of approval and disapproval are antecedent to, and are the foundation of, feelings of obligation; but the fact of their close connexion does not prove their identity. Both exist, and both are necessary. The absence of either, particularly of feelings of obligation, would have a disastrous bearing on the conduct of men, and on the various interests of society.

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