cally absent. How many stupid conclusions would have been avoided if one had not taken for granted what was actually to be proved? How many absurd deductions have been arrived at on the strength of irreproachable arguments based on a false principle? How many errors have arisen from using a certain word with one meaning at the beginning of an essay and another meaning afterwards? Therefore, let the student beware lest he should share the misfortune of La Fontaine's milkmaid carrying milk to the next town. Her arguments were unimpeachable; she reckoned accurately the money that was to result from the sale of the milk; she rightly concluded that the amount would enable her to buy a small pig, which after being reared would realise enough to procure a cow, which in turn would present her with enough calves to make her rich !!!

Combien de gens ne sont pas plus sages!

All this reasoning was perfect, but . . . the milkmaid had neglected the one important point, that of making sure that the initial amount (the proceeds of the sale of the milk) was an accomplished fact. And the fabulist shows us how the whole castle in the air crumbled for lack of solid foundations. The maid, jumping for joy, upset the milk, and

Adieu, veaux, vaches, cochons .

!

Moral: make sure of the foundations first. But even when the basis is sound, we must guard against mistakes caused through hurry, carelessness, lack of common sense. It is no light task to avoid all the pitfalls laid in our path by our conceit, our own interest, our feelings, our passions and our prejudices. It is not always an easy matter to examine both sides of a question with an open mind, to conduct an analysis or a reasoning to its logical conclusion. This requires fine moral qualities and a critical mind. If to know how to reason depends on the

love for le Bien, and if the correct expression of ideas betrays the passion for le Beau, then to know how to think is the privilege of those who strive towards le Vrai. As Taine has well said :-

"Il poursuit la vérité, non avec le zèle paisible d'un juge impartial, mais avec la sagacité et l'opiniâtreté d'un chercheur passionné. Il avance sur les routes glissantes avec les précautions minutieuses, le tact exquis, la sensibilité scrupuleuse, la résolution ardente d'un homme qui ne laissera rien à l'erreur ni à l'incertitude de tout ce que l'instinct du vrai, la patience et la passion pourront leur arracher."

Sensibility. This, by which is meant the capacity for feeling or emotion, and the amount of responsiveness occasioned by the display of these in others, is to a large extent a natural gift. Yet the writer requires a preliminary education in it, the main purpose of which is to develop sensibility when partly lacking, to check it when exaggerated.

The exercise of these faculties is not peculiar to the writing of French essays and a brief treatment has sufficed, because those in charge of the teaching of English essay-writing doubtless deal with it adequately.1 But now we have reached the parting of the ways. It is a great mistake to allow pupils to think out their subject in English, and then to write down what is in fact a French translation of their English thoughts. The faculties that have been enumerated must be exercised in French only. When French essays are to be written the student must think in French, read French extensively, talk French as much as he can, assume the French ways of seeing and expressing things; and this is where the old methods of teaching languages fail to make good their claims, while the direct method, if properly understood and applied, cannot but succeed.

1 Much help will be derived from Murison, English Composition, Part II. Cambridge University Press. 2s. 6d.

2 Duhamel, Tony et sa Sœur.

Dent & Co. 2s. 6d

2

Chapter II.-Sources

Reading. As was stated above, together with the training of certain faculties, the acquisition of special knowledge is required; and in the first instance "reading was mentioned. This exercise provides the mind and the imagination with all the varied materials required for essay-writing, which observation alone could never supply.

Reading constantly replenishes our stock of ideas and words it enables us to reap the benefits of centuries of experience; it opens up to us the accumulated wealth of original thoughts supplied by many great men who knew how to see and how to write. This borrowing will no more preclude us from making personal observations than the reading of Théophile Gautier's Voyage en Italie or the perusal of Taine's Voyage aux Pyrénées would prevent us from paying a visit to either place.

But what is to be read? Are we to suggest the greatest writers as alone offering examples of what is beautiful, or as being less likely to be open to criticism on account of their fame? Or shall we select works from second-rate authors as well, these being nearer to the level of the average reader and therefore more easily assimilated by him? It would seem best that, under his teacher's guidance, the student should read both. Diderot said: "Il n'y a point de bons livres pour un sot; il n'y en a peut-être pas un mauvais pour un homme de sens." (He no doubt meant " pour une femme de sens as well.) Joubert wrote: "Il est impossible de devenir très instruit si on ne lit que ce qui plaît.”

Therefore, read widely. This is possible, even at school, in spite of an overcrowded time-table. Do not confine your reading to works of the nineteenth century, but extend your welcome to those of the eighteenth and seventeenth centuries; as you get proficient, do not neglect to become acquainted with older writers such as Froissart or Joinville. Do not treat

French translations of Latin and Greek masterpieces with contempt, even if you can read the latter in the original text; if you cannot, do not listen to those who belittle the value of translations: it is better to listen to "Lohengrin " on a barrelorgan than to ignore Wagner's existence altogether. There are many works both in ancient and in foreign literatures that we have no right to ignore.

By reading is not meant the passive form of that exercise, which consists in going through a book as fast as one can turn its leaves; it implies the active reading that stimulates thought. The student ought to refer, when necessary, to a French dictionary as well as to biographical, etymological, historical works, or any other kind of reference books, leaving no detail incompletely understood. He should never proceed with his reading till he has verified facts that appear obscure or doubtful to him. He may examine the newly-gathered ideas in the light of previous reading, of actual facts, or of his own experience. He must, of course, take notes in French, forming a résumé of striking ideas and recording the passages most characteristic on account of their style or vocabulary. The personal impression of the reader should be added afterwards, the notes carefully classified and kept for reference. There is no better training than this for the acquisition of literary taste, above all when it is supplemented by reading aloud the most harmonious passages of each chapter. The ear as well as the eye cannot fail to be impressed by beautiful prose or poetry; there is, in every student, a memory of sounds, which, if developed, should go far towards making harmonious the language of his own essays.

Oral practice. For a similar reason oral practice should be encouraged; but its main purpose is to develop the faculty of thinking in French and expressing ideas fluently in that language. Before this result is obtained no French essay can be written, for Aliud est grammatice, aliud latine loqui, and it will be generally conceded that the genius of a language cannot be

appreciated except by the oral use of that language. Since the direct method is increasingly used in modern language teaching, there is every hope that this part of the subject will receive due attention. It may be noted, at the same time, that conversation is a necessary preliminary to the writing of dialogues or letters, both of which are treated fully in the chapter on Les Genres.

Observation. Someone, on noticing that the French name for "bat" was "chauve-souris," could not resist giving this explanation: "La chauve-souris est ainsi appelée parce qu'elle n'est ni chauve, ni souris." Now that person was undoubtedly a better observer than the one responsible for the appellation. It would be delightful if every essay-writer were an observer. Most essays relate to something real, to events that took place at a certain spot, during a well-defined period. Some of the particulars may be supplied to us, others will depend upon our imagination or knowledge. In either case, we must carefully observe everything, notice the importance of customs, religions, government, race, age, country, social relations; the results of prejudices, vices, virtues, belief, unbelief; the influence of contemporary events, peculiar habits, accidents, atmospheric conditions, time of occurrence. This can only be done by observers of an inquiring turn of mind. Therefore observe, elucidate, by asking questions or by research, everything that is not clear. Above all, note the result of your observation in each case.

Research. The young student cannot be expected to do postgraduate work, nor to emulate either A. Thierry when he was turning the leaves of numerous MSS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale, or Flaubert, who made a journey to Tunis to obtain documents for Salammbô. Yet, if such great writers find it advisable to collect trustworthy materials, the student whose general knowledge is far more limited, will find some research invaluable, even for easy essays. See, for example, the outline given in Chapter III about L'Alouette. Should the student