greatness of the power acquired by Charles at the end of the war, and on account of the Interim and the rest of his schemes of pacification, defeated the ends which the Emperor had hoped to accomplish. Not to pursue the subject into its details, the result of all of the negotiations and struggles of the Council was that the Papal power escaped without curtailment. Efforts to reduce the prerogatives of the Pope were ingeniously baffled. The Professio Fidei, or brief formula of subscription to the Tridentine Creed, contained a promise of obedience to the Pope. To this formulary all ecclesiastics and teachers are required to give their assent. The Roman Catechism was prepared and published under the direction of the Pope, by the authority of the Council; the Vulgate, which had been declared authoritative in controversies, was issued in an authorized edition, and a Breviary and a Missal put forth for universal use. The Council of Trent did a great work for the education of the clergy, the better organization of the whole hierarchical body, and the discipline of the Church. Its canons of reform regulated the duties of the secular and regular priesthood, inculcated the obligations of bishops, and introduced a new order and efficiency in the management of parishes.

The Creed of Trent was definite and intelligible in its denial of the distinguishing points of Protestantism; but on the questions in dispute between Augustinian and semi-Pelagian parties in the Church, it was indefinite and studiously ambiguous. But the Council, both by its doctrinal formulas and its reformatory canons, contributed very much to the consolidation of the Church in a compact body. It was no longer necessary to seek for the standard of orthodoxy in the various and conflicting writings of fathers and schoolmen, or in the multiplied declarations of the Popes. Such a standard was now presented in a condensed form and with direct reference to the antagonistic doctrines of the time.

But there was another agency of a different character, which was set in motion for the purpose of eradicating heresy. This was the Inquisition. It was reorganized in Italy on the recommendation of Caraffa; he was placed at the head of it; and in 1555, the prime author and the stern chief of this tribunal became Pope under the name of Paul IV. The Inquisition was an institution which had its origin in the early days of the thirteenth century, for the extirpation of the Albigensian heresy. It is a court, the peculiarity of which lies in the fact that it is expressly constituted for the detection and punishment of heretics, and supersedes, wholly or in part, in the discharge of this function, the bishops or ordinary authorities of the Church. It is thus an extraordinary tribunal, with its own rules and methods of proceeding, its own modes of eliciting evidence. The Spanish Inquisition, in its peculiar form, was set up under Ferdinand and Isabella, in the first instance for the purpose of discovering and punishing the converts from Judaism who returned to their former creed. The atrocities of which it was guilty under Torquemada make a dark and bloody page of Spanish history. It grew into an institution coex

1 Llorente, Hist. Critique de l' Inquisition d' Espagne (1817-18). Llorente was Secretary of the Inquisition, and having had the best opportunities for the investigation of its history, spent several years in the preparation of his work. The French translation of Pellier was made under the author's eye. Llorente was a liberal priest, in sympathy with the aims of the French Revolution, and a supporter of the Bonaparte rule in Spain. He believed the Inquisition to be "vicious in its principle, in its constitution, and in its laws" (Pref., p. x.), and he had no special reverence for the Popes. Yet at the time of the composition of this work, his relation to the Catholic Church was not, as it afterwards became, antagonistic. The work of Llorente has been unfavorably criticised by Roman Catholic writers, especially by Hefele, Der Cardinal Ximenes, etc. (2d ed., 1851), p. 241 seq. Hefele insists, in the first place, that the Spanish Inquisition was predominantly an instrument of the government, and that the Popes endeavored to check the severities of the Holy Office; and, secondly, that the charges of cruelty brought against the Inquisition have been greatly exaggerated. Hefele's principal point is Llorente's alleged miscalculation of the number of victims of the Inquisition. It is to be observed that most of his animadversions upon Llorente, Hefele is obliged to sustain by information which Llorente himself furnishes. Hefele considers that Prescott has erred in some particulars, through

tensive with the kingdom, with an extremely tyrannical and cruel system of administration; and was so interwoven with the civil government, after the humbling of the nobles and the destruction of liberty in the cities, that the despotic rule of Charles V. and of Philip II. could hardly have been maintained without it. It was an engine for stifling sedition as well as heresy. Hence it was defended by the Spanish sovereigns against objections and complaints of the Popes. The Inquisition, in the form which it assumed in Italy, under the auspices of Caraffa, differed from the corresponding institution in Spain, in some respects, but it resembled the latter in superseding the ordinary tribunals for the exercise of discipline, and was founded on the same general principles. Six cardinals were made inquisitors general, with power to constitute inferior tribunals, and with authority, on both sides of the Alps, to incarcerate and try all suspected persons of whatever rank or order. The terrible machinery of this court was at once set in motion in the States of the Church, and although resistance was offered in Venice and in other parts of Italy, the Inquisition gradually extended its sway over the whole peninsula. The result was that the open profession of Protestantism was instantly suppressed. In 1542, prior to the formal establishment of the Holy Office, Ochino and Peter Martyr, unwilling longer to conceal their adhesion to the Protestant faith, and being no longer safe in Italy, had left their country and found refuge with the Protestants north of the Alps. Equal amazement was occasioned when, in 1548, Vergerio, bishop of Capo d'Istria, a man of distinction, who had been employed in important embassies

the influence of Llorente. Prescott's account of the Inquisition is in his History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella, 1. ch. vii. Hefele has much to say of the disposition of the Jews to make proselytes, which he considers a palliation of the course taken by the Inquisition. But the vast number of insincere Jewish converts to Christianity, who furnished business to the Inquisition, proves that the "proselyten-macherei" was not so much on the side of the Jews.

THE INQUISITION.

405 by the Pope, followed their example. A multitude of suspected persons fled to the Grisons and to other parts of Switzerland. The academies at Modena and elsewhere were broken up. The Duchess of Ferrara was compelled to part from all of her Protestant friends, and dependants, and was herself subjected to constraint by her husband. The Protestant church of Locarno was driven out, under circumstances of great hardship, and found an asylum in Switzerland. Imprisonment, torture, and the flames were everywhere employed for the destruction of heterodox opinions. At Venice the practice was to take the unhappy victim out upon the sea at midnight and to place him on a plank, between two boats, which were rowed in opposite directions, leaving him to sink beneath the waves. Many distinguished men were banished; others, as Aonio Paleario and Carnesecchi, were put to death. The Waldensian settlement in Calabria was barbarously massacred. One essential part of the work of the Inquisition, and a part in which it attained to surprising success, was the suppression of heretical books. The booksellers were obliged to purge their stock to an extent that was almost ruinous to their business. So vigilant was the detective police of the Inquisition, that of the thousands of copies of the evangelical book on the "Benefits of Christ," it was long supposed that not one was left. It is only within a recent period that a few surviving copies have come to light. As a part of the repressive system of Caraffa, the "Index" of prohibited books was established. Besides the particular authors and books which were condemned, there was a list of more than sixty printers, all of whose publications were prohibited. Caraffa put upon the Index the Consilium or Advice, which in connection with Sadolet and others he himself had offered to Paul III., on the subject of a reformation, and in which ecclesiastical abuses

1 Macaulay, in his Review of Ranke's History of the Popes (Ed. Rev., 1840), said of this book: "It is now as hopelessly lost as the second decade of Livy."

had been freely censured.1 Later, under the auspices of Sixtus V., the "Index Expurgatorius" arose, for the condemnation, not of entire works, but of particular passages in permitted books. The sweeping persecution which was undertaken by the Catholic Reaction did not spare the evangelical Catholics, whose views of Justification were obnoxious to the faction that had gained the ascendency. They were regarded and treated as little better than avowed enemies of the Church. Even Cardinal Pole, who had forsaken England rather than accede to the measures of Henry VIII., and had been made Papal Legate and Archbishop of Canterbury under Mary, was in disgrace at the time of his death, which was simultaneous with that of the Queen. Cardinal Morone, the Archbishop of Modena, charged with circulating Paleario's book on the Atonement, with denying the merit of good works, and with like offenses, was imprisoned for about. two years, until the death of Paul IV., in 1559, set him free. The characteristic spirit of the dominant party is seen in the impracticable demand of this Pope that the sequestered property of the monasteries in England should be restored. This party succeeded in virtually extinguishing Protestantism in Italy.

In Spain a literary spirit had early arisen from the influence of the Arabic schools.2 The Erasmian culture found a cordial reception. "The Complutensian Polyglot" was an edition of the Scriptures that reflects much credit upon Cardinal Ximenes, by whom it was issued. Yet, he was opposed to rendering the Bible into the vernacular of the people, and was a supporter of the Inquisition. The resentment which this odious tribunal awakened, wherever a love of freedom lingered, predis

For the proof of this, see McCrie, p. 61.

2 McCrie, History of the Progress and Suppression of the Reformation in Spain in the Sixteenth Century (new ed., 1856). This work is the companion of the History of the Reformation in Italy, and of scarcely less value.