Derivation.

§ 42. Derivation in its widest sense includes all processes by which new words are formed from given roots. Thus used, the term includes composition (§ 41) on the one hand, and grammatical inflexions on the other; but it is usual and convenient to employ the word with the narrower meaning of word-formation by additions after the root; i.e., by suffixes.

OBSERVATION.-To prevent confusion between the masculine and neuter nouns of the second declension, the former are usually referred to in the Nominative, and not the Accusative. See Appendix, B.

BOOK 11.-PHONOLOGY.

CHAPTER I.-ALPHABET, SYLLABLES, ACCENT, ETC.

THE ALPHABET.

§ 43. Names of the Letters: (1) The letters, which are used to represent the various sounds employed in speaking any language, form its alphabet.

The French alphabet is the same as the English.

It is important not to confuse the names of the letters with their sounds; the sounds given to the letters often vary, the names do not.

(2) The names of the vowels in French are :--

a (fâchez), ẹ (été), i (ici), 。 (écho), u (tu).

(3) There are two ways of naming the consonants in French. The following is the ordinary way:

bé, cé, dé, effe, gé, ache, ji, ka, elle, emme, enne, pé, ku, erre, esse, té, vé, ics, zède.

w is called double vé,' and y'i grec.'

The following is the better way. The names then correspond as much as possible to the sounds :

be, de, fe, ghe, he, je, ke, le, me, ne, que, (ke) re, se, te, ve, xe (kse) ze.

c may be called se or ke; w may be called ou or ve. § 44. Imperfections of the French Alphabet.-For an alphabet to be perfect, every separate sound should have. a separate symbol. The French alphabet, like the English, is imperfect:

(1) There are at least thirty-two sounds, and only twentysix letters to represent them.

(2) The same letter may represent more than one sound: the o in mode has a different sound from the o in rose; the g in manger has a different sound from the g in gant.

(3) The same sound may have more than one letter to

represent it: the sound of k can be represented by k, c, and 7.

(4) Many letters are silent: gt in doigt; r in aimer; i in poigne, etc.

(5) Two letters may represent but one sound: cu in jeune; ch in chercher; an in tant, etc.

(6) One letter may represent two sounds: a in exercise. (7) The letters n, m sometimes help to represent vowel sounds, sometimes they are consonants; compare bon and bonne (§ 76).

SYLLABLES.

45. Division of Words into Syllables.-(1) A syllable must contain a vowel. It may or may not also have one or more consonants.

(2) Every inner syllable must begin with a consonant: é-du-ca-tion.

*

(3) Consonants coming together between two vowels must be divided: sol-dat.

Exceptions to (3).

i. Combinations of consonants, like cr, dr, fr, fl, sl, etc., in which or appears as second letter, must be left undivided: ci-dre, ap-pli-que.

ii. ph, th, rh, ch,† represent simple sounds. They must remain undivided : flè-che.

iii. gn usually ni. The letters are undivided: o-gnon.

§ 46. Closed and Open Syllables.-A syllable followed immediately by a consonant sound is said to be closed, or stopped: est-il; toute. A syllable not immediately followed by a consonant sound is said to be open, or full: tout;

il est.

§ 47. Long and Short Syllables. (See § 78, Quantity.)

*This is not always true in verse.

† ph=f; th=t; rh=r; ch=sometimes English sh, sometimes k (see SS 122-124).

Do not confuse this with the French terms fermé and ouvert which are often applied to sounds.

GRAPHIC ACCENTS.

§ 48. There are three graphic or written Accents in French :

1. The Circumflex A

2. The Grave

3. The Acute/

§ 49. The CIRCUMFLEX accent is found over all the vowels.

(1) It usually shows that some letter (especially s) is no longer employed in spelling the word, thus:

áge is now written instead of aage,

(2) Some of these vowels, with circumflex accent, have a different sound from the same vowels without the accent, thus:-a is usually different from â; o from ô; é from ê (§ 77).

§ 50. The GRAVE accent is placed over a vowel in a few words to distinguish them from others similarly spelt:

But its chief use is over e, to strengthen the tonic syllable (see § 56, v.).

§ 51. The ACUTE accent is only found over e. It may have the same meaning as the circumflex or the grave, but its chief use is to show that the e is not to have the sound of e in je, but that of e in the (§ 56, vi.): compare