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NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Sequence of Tenses.

The observations and rules given above are here stated at greater length :

In a Simple sentence the words are dependent in various ways upon each other. To express this dependence we use the terms agreement, concord, government, etc. In a Compound sentence, not only has this dependence to be observed, but the two or more simple sentences of which it is composed must correspond, so that a consistent whole may be produced.

The mutual dependence of tense upon tense, or sequence of tenses, as it is called, alone presents difficulty; for the absence of many tense-forms in the Subjunctive renders impossible the distinctions which exist in the Indicative: *

(a) No distinction is possible in the Subjunctive between the Simple Past and the Imperfect Past; one form does duty for both :

Je portai
Je portais

} Je portasse

(b) No distinction is possible in the Subjunctive between the Present and the Future, one set of tenses does duty for

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Hence the guiding principle already given :—

1. If the subordinate sentence has not the Subjunctive mood, that tense must be put which would be required if the sentence were a principal sentence.

2. If the subordinate sentence has the Subjunctive mood, this must be done as far as the forms will admit.

A more or less close correspondence of tenses on the one hand, and a more or less exact definition of time and the relation of time on the other, are obtained by an observance of the following rules :-+

* This seems the easiest way of putting the case, though probably the converse is the true view :- the lack of demand has reduced the supply, for minute distinctions are not necessary in a subordinate sentence.

† The rules marked * are exceptional, and are not included in most grammars. They are therefore supported by examples from well-known authors. Abundant examples of Consecution will be found in §§ 480-484, 'Subjunctive.'

A.

PRESENT TENSE FORMS IN PRINCIPAL SENTENCE.

Present tense forms in the principal sentence are followed in the subordinate sentence

1. By the Simple Present Subjunctive to express-
(a) indefinite or incomplete present action :
Il faut que vous écriviez maintenant.
(b) indefinite or incomplete future action :
Il faut que vous écriviez demain.

2. By the Perfect Present Subjunctive to express—
(a) finished present action :

Je doute que vous ayez écrit cette lettre.

(b) finished future action :

Je doute que vous ayez écrit cette lettre avant mon départ demain.

3. By the Simple Past Subjunctive to express―

(a)* indefinite past action:

Il y a plus de quarante ans que je dis de la prose

sans que j'en susse rien.

Je doute qu'on osât.

(b) future conditional action (C.):

(MOLIÈRE.) (ROUSSEAU.)

Je ne doute pas que vous écrivissiez bien cette lettre s'il vous aide.

4. By the Perfect Past Subjunctive to express past finished conditional action (C.):

Je ne doute pas que vous eussiez écrit cette lettre s'il vous avait aidé.

Observations.

*The form j'ai voulu may be Perfect Present with the consecution of the present tense, or Simple Past, with the consecution of the past tenses (§ 487. 4).

(a) Perfect Present:

L'empereur, a commandé qu'il meure. (RACINE.) Vous avez beaucoup de grâces à rendre à Dieu de ce qu'il a permis qu'il ne vous soit arrivé aucun accident. (RACINE.)

Dieu a dit qu'il viendra juger les hommes.

(b) Simple Past:

Vous m'avez dit que vous ne reviendriez pas le lende-
main.
(J. J. ROUSSEAU.)
Jésus Christ a promis qu'il viendrait juger les vivants
et les morts.

(WAILLY.)

A A

B.

PAST TENSE FORMS IN PRINCIPAL SENTENCE. Past tense forms in the principal sentence are followed in the subordinate sentence

1. By the Simple Past Subjunctive to express indefinite or incomplete past action :

Je voulais que vous écrivissiez

Je voulus que vous écrivissiez
J'avais voulu que vous écrivissiez

Quand j'eus voulu que vous écrivissiez.

2. By the Perfect Past Subjunctive to express finished past action:

Je voulais que vous eussiez écrit avant mon départ Je voulus que vous eussiez écrit avant mon départ J'avais voulu que vous eussiez écrit avant mon départ Quand j'eus voulu que vous eussiez écrit avant mon départ 3. By the Simple Present Subjunctive to express indefinite or incomplete present action:

Je ne fis rien qui vaille.

FUTURE TENSE FOR

C.

(ROUSSEAU.)

IN PRINCIPAL SENTENCE.

The Conditional in most of its uses is a Future, but a Future looked at from the past, and not from the present, like the ordinary Future tenses (§ 466):

Therefore whereas

The Future Indicative forms have the consecution of the
Present tenses (A); The Conditional forms have the con-
secution of the Past tenses (B) :

Il faudra que vous écriviez; Il faudrait que vous écrivissiez.
Il faudra que vous ayez écrit ; Il faudrait que vous eussiez écrit.

[vissiez. [écrit.

Il aura fallu que vous écriviez; Il aurait fallu que vous écri

Il aura fallu que vous ayez écrit ; Il aurait fallu que vous eussiez Observations.

It has been shown (B. 3 above) that (1) a Present tense may be followed by a Simple Past, and that (2) a Past tense may be followed by a Present. This is true of the Future and of the Conditional. It is sometimes to this and sometimes to a present force in the Conditional form, that we can ascribe such consecution asOn dirait à vous voir assemblés en tumulte Que Rome des Gaulois craigne encore une insulte.

(CRÉBILLON.) (ID.) (MASSILLON.)

Je ne croirais jamais que l'on s'adresse à moi.
On dirait qu'ils travaillent pour des années éternelles.

Qui croirait que le secret eût été gardé et qu'on n'ait jamais rien
su de la délibération que quatre ans après. (BoSSUET.)

CHAPTER IV.-THE ARTICLES.

Articles are merely weak Determinative Adjective Pronouns. This is true in both English and French.

Ce, cette, ces, are stronger than le, la, les; le, la, les, are stronger than un, une. When it is desired to determine more strongly than can be done by ce, cette, ces, such adverbs as ci, là, are added (§ 289), or some other form of expression is employed. When, on the contrary, it is desired to determine less strongly than is done by un, une, no article at all is employed.

The degree of definiteness which is required by established usage is not always the same in English and French. Still the two languages have much in common. Some of the cases in which they are alike, and all those in which they differ, are included in the following rules.

§ 495. Substantive employed in a General sense. 1. Before a Substantive employed in a general sense (that is, neither quite determinately nor quite indeterminately), the definite article is put in French, and omitted in English: Man is mortal. Gold is yellow. Life is short.

L'homme est mortel

L'or est jaune

La vie est courte

2. Under this heading seems to come the use of the article in French, and its non-use in English, before names of countries, provinces, and islands. (See, however, § 497. 2.)

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; 496. Substantive employed in an Indeterminate sense.

1. Before a Substantive used in an Indeterminate sense, no article is put for the most part either in English or French

(a) Where a preposition and a substantive together equal an adjective:

un verre de vin

un verre à vin

a glass of wine.

a wine glass

(b) When a preposition and a substantive together equal

an adverb:

aller à pied

aller à cheval

mourir de honte

to go on foot.

to go on horseback.

to die of shame.

(c) Where one idea is expressed by two words:

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(d) In the Partitive Genitive, after words of quantity

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(e) In the Partitive Genitive, where the word of quantity is understood, and an adjective precedes the substantive:

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