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theatre, at what time erected is unknown, but probably, if | Temple of Claudius. Nero took advantage of the arch of we may judge from the style of brickwork, in the first Dolabella, and passed his aqueduct over it, the arch of century of the Christian æra. It originally stood without which is still extant. the walls of Servius Tullius, but during the reign of Honorius it was employed to form part of the new enclosure, and the arches were filled up. On the inside the form of a semi-ellipse on its greatest axis is all that can be discerned; but externally the engaged Corinthian columns of the lower order, with their brick capitals, are well preserved; of the upper order there only remain a pilaster and part of an arch. During some excavations made here, an Egyptian statue, and some pieces of marble with which the amphitheatre was decorated, were discovered.

Arches.

of

Arch of Titus stands near the ruins of the temple Venus and Rome. On the side facing the Colosseum is a finely cut inscription on the attic:

SENATVS. POPVLVSQVE ROMANVS.
DIVO. TITO. DIVI. VESPASIANI. F
VESPASIANO. AVG.

Erected by Domitian, in honour of Titus, and to commemorate the great event of the conquest of Jerusalem. It is of Pentelic marble, and of an elegant design, but with only one arch. On each side were fluted columns of the composite order, of which only two on each side, and these imperfect, are antique; the rest of the arch was restored by Pius VII. On the sides of the piers under the arch, which is highly decorated, are two very fine bas-reliefs, illustrating the victory of Titus over the Jews. In one of them is represented the golden table, the trumpets and horus of silver, and the golden candlestick with its branches. The triumph of Titus is represented also on the frieze on the outside of the arch.

Arch of Septimius Severus, erected A.D. 205, by the senate and Roman people, in honour of Septimius Severus, and his sons Caracalla and Geta, for their victories over the Parthians, the Arabs, the Adiabeni, and other oriental nations. In the long inscription on the attic may be recognised the erasure made by Caracalla when he changed the expression, ET. P. SEPTIMIO. L. F. GÆTE. NOB. CESARI, for P.P. OPTIMIS. FORTISSIMIS.QVE. PRINCIPIBVS. The arch is of Pentelic marble, with archways and transverse archways through the piers of the centre arch. Each front is decorated with four fluted columns, and a series of basreliefs, which, though not of a high order, are highly interesting as a picture of the modes of warfare and the commissariat of a Roman army. From a medal of Severus and Caracalla, it appears that the attic of the arch was decorated with a chariot drawn by six horses, and in the chariot was placed the emperor between his two sons: on each side of the car was a soldier on foot and a soldier on horseback. The whole of the mouldings and the vaulting are highly enriched with carved ornaments. An accumulation of earth had half buried this monument when it was first excavated

Arch of Gallienus, upon the site of the Esquiline gate, dedicated to Gallienus and Salonina, by Marcus Aurelius Victor. The gate is formed of a single arch, adorned with four pilasters, and flanked with two buttresses, a part of one of which remains on the side towards the church of Santa Maria Maggiore. The structure is formed of large blocks of travertine, and is of a plain and simple but not a bad style of architecture.

Arch of Drusus, erected across the Appian way, close to the gate of St. Sebastian, by the senate, to Claudius Nero Drusus, father of the emperor Claudius. It consists of one arch only, adorned on each side with two marble columns of the composite order; above the entablature are the remains of a pediment, and there was also an attic. Caracalla used the arch as part of the line of his aqueduct for his Therma. An extant coin gives a faithful representation of this arch when perfect. Excavations have lately been made round this building. The arch appears to have been veneered with marble; but the cornices were formed of solid blocks of that material.

Arch of Janus Quadrifrons, situated in the Velabrum; the exact date of its erection is unknown, but from its debased style and want of simplicity, it may be attributed to a period after Septimius Severus. The form is square, 105 palms on each face, with a large arch in each front, forming an open vaulted space. In each of the piers supporting the arch are twelve niches in two rows, between which were small columns as a decoration forming a double order. The construction is formed of large blocks of white marble. The upper part is ruined, and it was held by the Frangipani as a fortress during the civil wars.

Arch of Septimius Severus, commonly called the Arch of the Goldsmiths, is situated also in the Velabrum, and close to the arch of Janus. This small structure, in a style which shows the decadence of art, is highly enriched, and consists of a single opening, square in form, and supported on broad pilasters filled with ornament. The following inscription shows it to have been erected by the bankers and dealers of the Forum Boarium, in honour of Septimius Severus, Julia Domna, his wife, and Caracalla :

IMP. CAES. L. SEPTIMIO. SEVERO. PIO. PERTINACI. AVG.
ARABIC. ADIABENIC. PARTHIC. MAX. FORTISSIMO. FELI-

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IMP. CAES. M. AVRELIO. ANTONINO. PIO. FELICI. AVG.
TRIB. POTEST. VII. COS. III.

FORTISSIMO. FELICISSIMOQUE. PRINCIPI. P. P. PROCOS. ET.
IVLIAE. AVG. MATRI. AVG. N. ET. CASTRORVM. ET. SE-
NATVS. ET. PATRIAE. ET. IMP. CAES.

M. AVRELII. ANTONINI. PII. FELICIS. AVG

by Pius VII., and afterwards by Leo XII., Pius VII., and PARTHICI. MAXIMI. BRITANNICI. MAXIMI. Gregory XIV.

Arch of Constantine, erected in commemoration of his great victory over Maxentius, stands near the Meta Sudans, and fronting the Colosseum. Formed with three archways, adorned with four beautiful columns of giallo antico on each side, and enriched with many fine bas-reliefs and statues, as well as with specimens of art of indifferent workmanship, it shows the decline of art at that period. The fine parts are supposed to have been taken from a triumphal arch erected to Trajan, the situation of which is unknown. It is also possible that some might have been taken from the forum of Trajan. The statues of the Dacian prisoners are probably taken from an arch of Trajan. Above the attic was a triumphal quadriga. The arch remained partially buried until it was excavated by Pius VII., who enclosed the basement within a circular wall. During the reigns of his sucsors the whole of the surrounding earth has been removed, so that the roadway now passes under it.

Arch of Dolabella. This single arch of travertine was constructed A.D. 10, by the consuls Publius Cornelius Dolabella and Caius Junius Silanus. It stands near the church of S. Giovanni and Paolo, and is thought to have been the entrance to the Campus Martialis, where the Equiria, or equestrian games in honour of Mars, were celebrated, when the Campus Martius was inundated by the Tiber. This campus stands immediately to the left after passing the opening. It is flanked on the west by a magnificent substruction of large niches belonging to the Nymphæum of Nero and

ARGENTARII. ET. NEGOTIANTES. BOARII. HVIVS. LOCI.
QVI. INVEHENT. DEVOTI. NVMINI. EORVM.

The name of Geta was originally in the dedication, but his name was erased after his death.

Columns.

Column of M. Aurelius Antoninus, in the Piazza Colonna. [ANTONINE COLUMN.]

Column of Antoninus Pius was discovered on the Monte Citorio, in the house of the Mission, in 1709. It was of a single piece of red granite, and had a white marble pedestal, now in the Vatican, representing alto-reliefs, with the inscription:

DIVO ANTONINO AVGVSTO PIO
ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS ET
VERVS AVGVSTVS FILII.

The shaft was 68 Roman palms long, and was used to restore the obelisks erected by Pius VI. This column, which is represented on the coins of Antoninus Pius, was enclosed with a fence, and most probably stood within the forum of Antoninus Pius, adjoining that of Aurelius, as did also the temple called the Temple of Antoninus Pius.

Column of Trajan, formed of 34 pieces of white marble, situated in the forum of Trajan, and erected by that emperor as a decoration to his great forum. The height represents the height of the Quirinal cut away and removed for the level site of his forum, and is stated in the following inscription

SENATVS. POPVLVSQVE ROMANVS.

IMP. CAESARI. DIVI. NERVAE. F NERVAE TRAJANO. AVG. GERM. DACICO PONTIF. MAXIMO. TRIB. POT. XVII. IMP VI. COS. VI. PP. AD. DECLARANDVM. QVANTAE. ALTITVDINIS. MONS. ET. LOCVS. TANTIS OPERIBVS

SIT EGESTVS.

This column, admirable both for its proportion and for the design and execution of the bas-reliefs and ornaments, which are in the best taste, was the receptacle for the ashes of Trajan. The spiral bas-reliefs do not destroy the line of the shaft by their projection, as in the column of Marcus Aurelius, called the Antonine column. The Trajan column is, with few exceptions, in a high state of preservation. A statue of St. Peter is placed on the pedestal at its summit, and it is ascended by a spiral staircase.

Column of Phocus, erected in the Forum Romanum by the Exarch Smaragdus to the emperor Phocas, A.D. 608, according to an inscription on the pedestal.

The erasure of the name of Phocas, made by Heraclius, is discernible on the pedestal of the fluted Corinthian column, which is of a much earlier date, probably of the time of the Antonines. On the top of the capital there was a gilt statue of the emperor. The pedestal is placed on a flight of steps of a bad construction, from which it is evident that the column was taken from some other structure.

Forums.

Forum of Nerva, situated near the Forum Romanum, commenced by Domitian, and dedicated to Pallas. It was however terminated by Nerva. It received the names of Transitorium and Pervium, from its being a passage-way to other fora. Two fluted columns of the Corinthian order, half buried in the ground, with a rich entablature and attic over them, adorned with a bas-relief of Pallas or Rome, formed part of the internal decoration of the inclosure of the temple of Minerva. A large part of an irregular line of wall belonging to this forum is remarkable for its height and massive masonry of Travertino, set without cement. It is highly probable that the wall is much more antient than the date of the formation of the forum by Domitian and Nerva. Through this wall there is an antient archway with the masonry cut diagonally. See the Plan of the Forum, by Bunsen, for the extent and position of this forum.

Forum of Trajan, adjoining the forum of Nerva. (See Bunsen's Plan.) Of this extensive forum only the Cochlide column and part of the Basilica Ulpia can be seen; the rest of the site is buried under the adjacent streets and houses. The earth round the pedestal of the column was excavated in 1590, during the pontificate of Sixtus V.; and Pius VII. in 1812 and 1813 caused the present area to be formed by the removal of the houses and excavation of the site of part of the Basilica. The columns are of grey granite, and have been replaced in their respective situations. The site of the steps and pedestals at their entrance may be distinguished, and numerous fragments of marble capitals, entablatures, and ornaments are ranged round the area.

Miscellaneous.

Mamertine and Tullian Prisons, situated near the Capitol, close to the forum, built prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, and enlarged by him. Part of the front, forty-five feet long and eighteen high, is constructed with large blocks of tufa without cement; a part is also buried in the earth.

C. VIBIVS. C. F. RVFINVS M. COCCEIVS.... NERVA. COS. EX.

s. c. repaired this edifice in the reign of Tiberius, A.D. 22. The prison was divided into two floors, and the round hole through which criminals were dropped into the lower prison still exists.

Tabularium and Ærarium Sanctius, place for the public archives and treasure, constructed on the side of the Capitol, by Quintus Lutatius Catulus. The inscription referred to by Nardini after Poggio is :

Q. LVTATIVS. Q. F. Q. N. CATVLVS. COS.
SVBSTRVCTIONEM. ET. TABVLARIVM. S. S.

FACIENDVM. COERAVIT.

(Sce Plan of Rome, by Bunsen.) Septisolium, commonly called the Sette Sale, is near the baths of Titus, enlarged by Trajan. It is a large brick ruin, and may be classed among the Piscinæ, or reservoirs. It is thought to be older than the time of Titus, though it was applied to the use of his baths. It consists of two floors, the lower of which is buried in the ground; the upper is divided into nine chambers, with the opening from one to the other in a diagonal line., The construction is very solid.

Cloaca Maxima, said to have been constructed by Tar quinius Priscus. Two parts of this cloaca only are visible, one near the arch of Janus Quadrifrons, and the other on the Tiber near the temple of Vesta. [CLOACA.]

Praetorian Camp, built by Sejanus, in the reign of Tiberius, without the walls of Servius, to the north-east of Rome, and dismantled by Constantine the Great. Three sides of the walled enclosure of a rectangular figure were joined by Honorius to his new walls, and form a large rectangled recess on the plan of Rome. The appearance of the leading features of the camp may be collected from a gold coin of Claudius.

Meta Sudans, a fountain placed at the point of junction of four antient regions, the second, third, sixth, and tenth, and within a short distance of the Colosseum. It appears to have been at least as old as the time of Nero, and was reconstructed by Domitian in the form of a cone, in the centre of a circular basin 80 Roman feet in diameter. This brick rim has been entirely divested of its marble covering and ornaments; the water came out in a jet from the top; a representation of it appears on the coins bearing the impress of the Flavian amphitheatre. In the coin there are two large figures: one may probably represent the colossal statue removed here first by Vespasian and afterwards removed by Hadrian. The gladiators of the amphitheatre are said to have washed themselves at this fountain.

Portico of Octavia, built by Augustus, near the theatro of Marcellus, as a place of refuge for the spectators in the theatre from a storm. The portico, which was burnt, probably in the reign of Titus, was restored by the emperors Septimius Severus and Caracalla.

The ruin consists of one of the principal entrances only, which had two fronts similar in design and proportion; each front was adorned with four fluted Corinthian columns of white marble and two pilasters, supporting an entablature and pediment. Several columns of Cipolino and Carystian marble are walled into the houses of the fish-market, which is its present destination.

The restoration by Septimius Severus may easily be distinguished. A large brick arch and brick piers have been constructed to support the entablature ruined by the fire; some other remains of brick arches clearly indicate, from the difference in construction, the restoration. The style of the original building is bold, simple, and worthy of the Augustan age. A part of the portico is now used as a church.

After

Palace of the Casars, commenced by Augustus Cæsar, on the site of the house of Hortensius, the orator, and of Catiline. Augustus added to the original dwelling of Hortensius a temple dedicated to Apollo, with a portico of Numidian columns, and also a library. This palace, with its posterior additions, was distinguished by the name of Domus Augustana.' It was extended by Tiberius, towards the Velabrum, to the extremity of the hill. This part, in contradistinction to the Domus Augustana, was called Domus Tiberiana.' It was increased towards the forum by Caligula, and united to the Capitol by a bridge, which was afterwards destroyed by Claudius. The Palatine not being sufficient for Nero, he extended the palace of the Cæsars over the whole of the plain between it, the Calius, and the Esquiline, and a part even of the Esquiline itself, thus uniting the palace with the gardens of Maecenas. This extensive palace having been destroyed by the great fire of Rome in the reign of Nero, it was rebuilt by him in a sumptuous style, and called the Domus Aurea. having suffered many changes and mutilations during the reigns of successive emperors, it was much injured at the sacking of Rome by the Vandals. Yet Heraclius inhabited it in the seventh century, and in the time of Pope Con stanti.e, in the beginning of the eighth century, the greater part of it was standing. Extensive remains of the substructions and some of the corridors still exist, especially towards the Circus Maximus. A rude coloured drawing in the print room of the British Museum, among the folios of original drawings, represents a portion of a triple-storied colonnade, as it stood in the seventeenth century. The ruins of the palace of the Cæsars stood in what is now called the Orti Farnesiani, and here may be recognised the position of a part of the palace of Augustus, of that of Tiberius, of Caligula, and of Nero. The most extensive parts of the ruins are the foundations and basements which sustained the external porticos, and the basements of the other parts of the palace, which from time to time was enlarged. On the higher part of the hill may be seen considerable re

mains of the famous Palatine library, built by Augustus, | of the Palatine as far as the Curiæ Veteres, subsequently and the magnificent temple of Apollo connected with it, and the Therma Trajani. From thence it proceeded along the built after the victory of Actium. Towards the Circus top of the Velia to the chapel of the Lares, subsequently the Maximus are the foundations of the theatre built by Cali- Arch of Titus; it then crossed the valley between the Cagula, in the palace which he joined on to the front of the lius, the Carinæ, and the Velia. The space from this lasthouse of Augustus. Near the temple of Apollo, but below mentioned place to the point from which it commenced, subit, there are two small chambers, called the baths of Livia, sequently the Forum Romanum, through which no line is which are very well preserved, and the painting and gilding mentioned, was then a lake or swamp. (Niebuhr, Hist. of are in good taste. Rome, i. 288.) The town itself, which had about the same extent as the Pomerium, was probably surrounded by a wall and a narrow ditch. Towards the Capitoline and the Aventine respectively it was surrounded by swamps and ponds. Between the Palatine and Cælius the valley was not so deep, and it contained a long tract of elevated ground called the Velia, on which side the town, being easy of access, required fortifications.

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Villa of the Quintilii, extensive ruins, at the distance of five miles from Rome, on the Via Latina, hitherto called Ruins of the Pagus Lemonius.' This villa was built by the Quintilii, who were destroyed by Commodus. The inscription on the leaden pipes dug up in the villa contains the name of the Quintilii. Among the ruins, which appear to have been enlarged or restored about the close of the third or beginning of the fourth century, may be distinguished an amphitheatre, two magnificent bathing-halls, an aqueduct, and a fountain.

Fountain of Egeria, erroneously so called, is a chamber, situated in a valley about a mile from the Porta Latina, and at a short distance from the Via Latina. It appears from its construction to be a combination of reticulated with lateral work, and to be about the age of Vespasian. It is a chamber which contains eleven niches. The pavement was of serpentine; the lower part of the walls was once adorned with verde antique, and the niches were lined with white marble, with margins of rosso antico. All these embellishments are gone, and there is only a mutilated recumbent statue at the extremity of the chamber. A small spring of water still oozes from this building.

Curia Hostilia, on the southern side of the Forum. Three walls only of this building remain; they were originally covered with marble, and the façade was probably decorated with columns.

Milliarium Aureum, close to the arch of Septimius Severus, in the Forum Romanum. On the left, looking towards the Capitol, is a circular terminal, placed on a circular basement lined with marble.

Circus Maximus, situated in the valley at the south side of the Palatine hill, was founded by Tarquinius Priscus, and restored and enlarged by Julius Cæsar. Augustus erected the obelisk of the spina. It was burnt in the great fire of Rome under Nero. Vespasian restored and perhaps enlarged it. Trajan embellished it, and under Constantine the Great it was again repaired and beautified, and his son Constantius erected the second obelisk. Of this vast edifice the general form only is distinguishable in the vineyard in which it now stands.

Circus of Romulus, commonly called the circus of Caracalla | [CIRCUS], is adjoining to the temple of Romulus, and is of the same style of brick construction. This circus was consecrated by Maxentius, A.D. 311, according to the inscription upon it.

TOPOGRAPHY OF ANTIENT ROME.

It is universally admitted that the part of Rome which was said to have been built by Romulus, occupied the Palatine hill on the eastern side of the Tiber. This town on the hill was, according to the custom of the Latins (Göttling, Geschichte der Röm. Staatsverfassung, p. 17), built in a square form, whence it is called Roma Quadrata (Fest., s. v.; Dionys. Hal., i. 88): it was intersected by two main streets, one running from north to south, the other from east to west. The point at which these streets intersected each other was called gruma, or groma (from which perhaps the name Roma was formed), and sometimes mundus. This spot, which itself formed a square, existed till a very late period, and was surrounded by a wall. This original Roma is generally supposed to have had three gates: 1, Porta Mucionis, or Mugonia, at the northern extremity of the hill, which looked towards the northern part of the Forum Romanum; 2, Porta Romanula, or Romana; and 3, the Porta Janualis. The Pomerium, that is, the precincts within which auguria could be taken, ran, according to Gellius (xiii. 14, 2) round the foot of the hill; but it seems to have been extended even before the union of Rome with any of the neighbouring places, for, according to the description of Tacitus (Annal., xii. 24), the Pomerium embraced not only the sides of the hill, but a considerable portion of the adjoining plain. It ran from the Forum Boarium through the valley of the Circus Maximus, including the Ara Maxima, to the Ara Consı, along the foot

As early as the time of Romulus, Etruscan settlements existed on the Calian hill, and extended over Mons Cispius and Oppius, which are parts of the Esquiline. Whether these Etruscans lived in open villages or fortified places is unknown; but we learn from Varro that they were compelled by the Romans to abandon their seats on the hills, and to descend into the plains between the Cælius and the Esquiline, whence the Vicus Tuscus in that district derived its name. The principal of these Etruscan settlements was, according to the well known hypothesis of Niebuhr, called Lucerum.

The three hills north of the Palatine, that is, the Quirinal, Viminal, and Capitoline, were occupied by Sabines, and the last of these hills was their citadel. Their town or. the Quirinal was, according to Niebuhr, called Quirium When the Latin and Sabine towns became united, the valleys between the hills must have been drained, and the cloaca by which this was effected belong to the earliest architectural remains of Rome. (Niebuhr, i. 391, et seq.) The valley between the Palatine and Capitoline was set apart as the place of meeting for the two nations (Comitium and Forum Romanum), and the boundary between the territories of the two towns was probably marked by the Via Sacra, which came down from the top of the Velia, ran between the Quirinal and the Palatine, and then making a bend proceeded between the latter hill and the Capitoline, as far as the temple of Vesta, whence it turned right across the Comitium towards the gate of the Palatine.

The Seven Hills inhabited by these three different nations were united into one town, and surrounded by a wall by king Servius Tullius. The Pomerium had been extended with the increase of the city, but the Aventine, though included in the new wall, did not lie within the Pomerium, and it continued to be chiefly inhabited by plebeians. Hence it is not mentioned among the districts of the city by Varro, who calls them Palatium, Velia, Cermalus, Cælius, Fagutal, Oppius, and Cispius. All these were within the new Pomerium. Cermalus was the spot at the foot of the Palatine, where the Lupercal and the Ficus Ruminalis were, and where in early times, when the waters were high, the ground was flooded from the Velabrum. The Fagutal was, according to Niebuhr, the wide plain between the Palatine and the Caelius-Septizonium and the Colosseum. The new fortification consisted in some places of a wall, probably with towers at certain intervals; in other places the steep sides of the hills rendered artificial fortifications unnecessary, for instance, on the western side of the Capitoline. The northeastern part from the Colline to the Esquiline gate, seveneighths of a mile in length, was fortified by a wall, or rather mound. From the border of a moat 100 feet broad and 30 feet deep, was raised a wall 50 feet wide and above 60 high, faced towards the moat with flagstones, and flanked with towers. (Niebuhr, i., p. 394, &c.) Traces of this gigantic work are still visible. From the Colline gate the wall ran in a south-west direction along the skirts of the Quirinal, then turned off to the western side of the Capitoline, and proceeded along this hill through the low grounds between the Palatine and the river towards the northern point of the Aventine. It then ran along the western and southern sides of the Aventine, crossed the valley between this hill and Monte San Balbina, part of which was enclosed towards the southern skirts of Caelius, and after running along them, it proceeded in a northern direction towards the Esquiline gate at the southern extremity of the great mound. The gates of this wall, as far as they can be ascertained. were:-1, Porta Salutaris. 2, Porta Sangualis: both led from the Campus Martius to the Quirinal. On the same side

ay probably-3, Porta Fontinalis, from which, in the time of the Republic, an arcade led to the altar of Mars in the Campus Martius. 4, Porta Ratumena, probably on the northern side of the Capitoline, and likewise leading to the Campus Martius. 5, Porta Carmentalis, on the southern side of the Capitoline, and near the present Vicolo della Bufala. This gate, together with the-6, Porta Triumphalis, and 7, Porta Flumentana, lay in the line of the wall which ran across the low ground from the Capitoline to the Aventine, and not, as has generally been supposed, in a straight line from the southern end of the Capitoline to the river, which supposition has suggested an entirely false direction of the wall of Servius in this part. The Porta Flumentana was near to or on the spot of the Janus Quadrifrons, and the Porta Triumphalis at the north-western entrance of the Circus Maximus. Near this gate, or perhaps connected with it, were the so-called--8, Duodecim Portæ, which Pliny reckons as one gate. 9, Porta Trigemina, a little below the Clivus Sublicius, leading up the Aventine from the Forum Boarium. On the steep side of this hill towards the river there was no gate. The next was the-10, Porta Navalis, which, in early times, probably led to Ostia. The district before it was called Regio Navalis; it was the ship-wharf and maritime arsenal of the city, and a great number of magazines were built in this plain. Between the Porta Navalis and the Porta Capena, on the Caelius, we have three gates-11, Porta Naevia; 12, Porta Raudusculana; and 13, Porta Lavernalis. The first of these three lay probably in the valley between the Aventine and Monte San Balbina; the second on the hill of San Balbina, and the third in the valley between this hill and the Cælius, that is, south of the Porta Capena. The Porta Raudusculana must have been the point at which the road to Ardea commenced. 14, Porta Capena was probably at the foot of the Calian hill. The exact course of the wall from this gate towards the east, and then north towards the Esquiline gate, cannot be clearly ascertained, though we know that the Lateran was not included. 15, Porta Cælimontana must have been towards the Esquiline. 16, Porta Esquilina was at the southern end of the great north-eastern wall, near the arch of Gallienus; from it issued the Via Prænestina and Labicana. 17, Porta Querculana was probably in the valley between the Cælius and Esquiline. The great wall commencing at the Esquiline gate, in its whole extent from south to north, had two gates besides the Esquiline, viz. 18, Porta Viminalis, which lay about the middle of the wall; and 19, Porta Collina, which must have been on the spot where the Via Salaria and Nomentana meet. The sites of the Porta Catularia and Piacularis are entirely unknown.

The whole circumference of the walls of Servius Tullius was about six miles. They included considerable tracts of land which were not occupied by buildings, but were either pasture-grounds or covered with wood or thickets, such as great parts of the Esquiline and Viminal. Accordingly in times of war the people of the surrounding districts took refuge within the walls of the city, where they found sufficient space and food for their cattle. It was however principally the inner space near the wall itself which was not occupied by buildings until a very late period. Servius Tullius | divided the whole city within the walls into four regions, which coincided with the four city tribes into which he divided the commonalty. The Capitoline, which was the city of the gods, and the town on the Aventine, were not included in these regions. Their names were: 1, Regio Suburana, comprehending the Cælius, the Carinæ, and the valley between them (afterwards the site of the Colosseum), the Via Sacra, and the Subura; 2, Regio Esquilina, comprising the whole of the Esquiliæ, as far as they were included within the wall; 3, Regio Collina, extending over the Viminal and Quirinal; and 4, Regio Palatina, which comprehended the whole of the Palatine.

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uncertain whether the remains are genuine which are generally considered to belong to this prison. The Circus Maximus was between the Palatine and Aventine, of which there are probably no remains. The Forum Romanum was between the Palatine and Capitoline. The Cloaca Maxima carried the waters of the Velabrum and the Forum Romanum into the Tiber, and was a stupendous work. The wall of the elder Tarquin formed an embankment on the east side of the river: the remains are still visible to some extent. Of the wall of Servius Tullius few traces remain; but it existed in the eighth century of Rome, as appears from the description of Pliny (iii. 5), and from Dionysius of Halicarnassus (ix., p. 624).

During the early part of the Republic, we find no mentior. of such great architectural works as those which were built during the period of the kings; but, with the increase of the population, many of the uncultivated and uninhabited districts must have gradually become covered with houses. About 120 years after the establishment of the republic. when the city was taken by the Gauls, the whole was consumed by fire, with the exception of the Capitol, a few houses on the Palatine, and some of the works above enumerated, the magnitude of which saved them from destruction. The hasty mode in which the city was rebuilt explains the fact that down to the time of Nero the streets of Rome were narrow, irregular, and crooked, and, in point of beauty and regularity, Rome was far inferior to most of the other great towns in Italy. After this restoration, a long time probably passed before any new ground was built upon. Down to the fifth century of the city, private houses were generally covered with shingles, and there continued to be a number of groves within the walls of the city. But towards the end of the period which is comprised between the Gallic conflagration and the end of the second Punic war, Rome began to be embellished with temples, which however, both as to material and architecture, were far inferior to the temples of Greece. High roads and aqueducts also began to be built. The streets of the city itself were not paved, though we have no reason to suppose that they were neglected. At a somewhat later period we find public places, streets, and walks under the porticos, commonly paved with large square blocks of tuffo or of travertino. In the year 176 B.C., the censors ordered the streets of the city to be paved with blocks of basalt, which were laid on a stratum of gravel, such as is still visible in a part of the Via Appia. At the time of the war with Hannibal, the district near the river, between the Capitoline and Aventine, was almost entirely covered with buildings, and it was called Extra Portam Flumentanam.

The private houses had from the earliest times been very simple in structure; but after the conquest of Greece, and more especially of Asia, individuals began to build their dwellings in a magnificent style, and the taste for splendid mansions and palaces increased so rapidly, that a house like that of Crassus, which at first was universally admired for its splendour and magnificence, in the course of a few years was lost among superior buildings. Public edifices however still remained the chief objects of the pride of the Romans. Theatres, a class of buildings which had once been scarcely tolerated, were erected in several parts of Rome during the last century of the republic, especially after the time of Sulla. During the civil wars between Marius and Sulla we find that the number of houses had increased to such a degree, that the walls of Servius Tullius in several parts lay within the city itself, and Niebuhr thinks it not improbable that at this time a suburb already existed in the plain west of the Tiber, which was afterwards called the Regio Transtiberina. At the beginning of the eighth century of the city, another suburb is mentioned In Emilianis, between the Circus Flaminius and the Quirinal. A third arose south of the Caelius, a mile from the Porta Capena, and was called Ad Martis.

Each of these regions was again subdivided into six districts, which derived their names from the Sacella Argaeo- Of all the splendid buildings which were raised during rum, which probably stood wherever two streets crossed each the latter part of the republic, scarcely any traces exist, other, so that these subdivisions appear to have been com- and the only remains which can with any probability be pact masses of houses, such as were subsequently called reckoned among them, are the substructions of three anvicus. Their number is stated by Varro to have been twenty-tient temples below the church of San Nicola in Carcere; seven twenty-four belonging to the four regions, and the three remaining ones probably to the Capitoline.

Many great buildings were erected at Rome during the kingly period. The great temple of Jupiter was on the Capitol. The prison of Tullius, called Carcer Tullianus, or Mamertinus, was at the eastern foot of the Capitoline. It is

the so-called temple of Fortuna Virilis, not far from the theatre of Marcellus; and perhaps also the three columns of the so-called temple of Castor and Pollux, near the Forum.

Augustus might well say that he had changed Rome from a city of bricks into one of marble, for the roads, aqueducts, and public buildings of every descript on, temples, arcades.

and theatres, which were raised during his long and peaceful reign, were almost innumerable. The whole plain between the Quirinal and the river became a new town, which in splendour and magnificence far surpassed the city of the hills: this new town was one mass of temples, arcades, theatres, and public places of amusement, not interrupted by any private habitations. Aqueducts for the purpose of supplying the city with water had been built as early as the year 313 B.C., and the first (Aqua Claudia) was begun by Appius Claudius. It ran almost entirely under ground, and conveyed the water from a distance of about eight miles in the direction of the Porta Capena into the city. Other aqueducts (Anio vetus, 273 B.C.; Aqua Marcia, 145 B.C.; Tepula, 127 B.C.; Julia, 35 B.C.) were constructed, but it was not until the Imperial period that this kind of architecture reached perfection, and most of the remains which are still extant belong to the period of the Empire. They were mostly built upon arches, which had an easy inclination, so that the water ran gently from its source towards the city. Augustus built two new aqueducts (Aqua Alsietina or Augusta, and Aqua Virga), and increased the Marcia. Subsequent emperors added the Aqua Claudia, Anio novus (both in A.D. 50); Aqua Trajana, A.D. 111); Antoniniana (A.D. 212); Alexandrina (A.D. 230); and Jovia (A.D. 300). (Frontinus, De Aqueductibus Urbis Rome; Platner, Beschreibung der Stadt Rom, i, p. 195, &c.) The division into four regions, made by Servius Tullius, had remained unaltered; but Augustus, for the convenience of administration, divided the whole city, both within and without the walls of Servius, into fourteen new regions, a division which continued to the eighth century, when it began gradually to give way to the Ecclesiastical division into seven regions. Each of the Augustan regions, according to a survey taken in the reign of Vespasian, contained nineteen, or, according to a later account, twenty-two vici, with as many sacella in places where two streets crossed each other (in compitis). Each vicus seems, on an average, to have contained about 230 dwelling-houses, so that every region contained rather more than 3000. About one twenty-fifth part of this number of houses were domus, that is, habitations of the rich (palazzi), with a portico in front and an extensive inner court (atrium). The remaining twenty-four twenty-fifths consisted of insule, that is, habitations for citizens of the middle and lower classes; they had no portico in front, but mostly an open space which served as a shop or workshop. In the interior they may have had a court, but of smaller extent than the atrium of a domus. The number of these insula was about 44,000. All Roman houses were very high. Augustus fixed 70, and Trajan 60 feet as the height, above which none were allowed to be built; and the upper story was generally of wood. It was a law of the Twelve Tables which also occurs in the Roman legislation of later times, that no two houses, whether domus or insulæ, should be built closely together; but that an open space of five feet should be left between them. The fourteen regions of Augustus are: -1, Porta Capena, to the south of the gate of this name. 2, Calimontium, which embraced the whole of the Calian hill. 3, Isis et Serapis, the valley between the Caelius, Palatine, and Esquiline. 4, Via Sacra, or Templum Pacis. 5, Regio Esquilina. 6, Alta Semita. 7, Via Lata. 8, Forum Romanum. 9, Circus Flaminius. 10, Palatium. 11, Circus Maximus. 12, Piscina Publica. 13, Aventinus. 14, Regio Transtiberina.

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assumed a totally different aspect. On the ruins of the temples and the imperial palace on the Palatine rose the socalled Golden House of Nero, which occupied a space equal to a large town. The greatest care was taken to make the new streets wide and straight, and that the buildings should not exceed a reasonable height. In order to render possible the execution of the regular plan, the several quarters of the city were measured, and the heaps of ruins were removed and conveyed in ships to Ostia to fill up the marshes in ite vicity. All the new buildings were massive, and constructed of the fire-proof peperino, without the old wooden upper story. The width of the new streets rendered it necessary to extend the city beyond its former limits. Some time afterwards, in the reign of Vespasian, a measurement of the circumference of Rome was taken, according to which it amounted to 13 Roman miles. The subsequent emperors continued to increase and embellish the city; but under Commodus a great part was again consumed by a fire, which destroyed all the buildings on the Palatine. Septimius Severus exerted himself to restore the parts which had been burnt, and to ornament the city, and some of his buildings are still extant. But the grandeur and magnificence of the therma of Caracalla, south of the Porta Capena, surpassed all the works of his predecessors. Almost all the great buildings, or their remains, which still exist at Rome, belong to the period between Nero and Constantine.

The most extensive work of this latter period is the im mense wall, with its numerous towers, with which Aurelian surrounded the city. The work, which was completed in the reign of Probus (A.D. 276), does not however enable us to form a correct estimate of the real extent of the city, as the objects of the fortification may have rendered it necessary to enclose parts which were not covered with buildings. The Janiculus, which seems to have been fortified from the earliest times of the republic, was now for the first time included within the city walls, together with the Regio Transtiberina. On the north it embraced the whole of the Campus Martius, together with a considerable part of the Collis Hortulorum, or Mons Pincius; and on the south, the Mons Testaceus and a considerable portion of the Via Appia and Latina. On the eastern side it enclosed the Amphitheatrum Castrense, and then proceeded northward to the Prætorian camp. Most of the gates in this new wall were determined by and named after the great roads which commenced at the gates in the Servian wall. The walls of modern Rome, as well as the gates, differ in many parts from those built by Aurelian. The names of the gates of the Aurelian wall, beginning on the north and proceeding to the east and south, are: Porta Flaminia, Pinciana, Salaria, Nomentana, Tiburtina, Collatina, Prænestina, Labicana, Asinaria, Metronia, Latina, Appia, and Ostiensis. Seven bridges connected the eastern and western sides of the river. The whole circumference of these new fortifications was about 21 miles. In the time of Honorius some parts of this wall were decayed, and others had become useless on account of the great quantity of rubbish which had accumulated near them; Lut they were restored by this emperor. (Platner, Beschreibung der Stadt Rom, i., p. 618.) Though the present walls, as already observed (p. 87), do not much exceed the height of fifteen or twenty feet on the inside, owing to the accumulation of rubbish, they are in many places as much as fifty feet high on the outside.

The Prætorian camp, south of the Porta Nomentana, intersected the Aurelian wall; but Constantine destroyed the western side of the camp, which faced the city, and made the three remaining sides serve as continuations of the Aurelian wall. Some remains of these fortifications are still visible.

Tiberius, besides completing many of the buildings of his predecessor, began the Prætorian camp on the north-east side of the city, in the Campus Viminalis, and surrounded it with high walls. The wealthy Romans at this time had their palaces principally in the district from the Porta Collina to the Porta Cælimontana; they did however not After the time of Constantine, when the emperors and form streets, but lay in gardens within the fields between the Roman nobles had adopted the Christian religion, the the high roads which issued from the city; and hence they decay and destruction of the antient edifices commenced. are generally called Horti, as Horti Mæcenatis, Pallantiani, The building of numerous churches was the immediate Epaphroditi, &c. All that had been done for the embel-cause of this destruction. Neither the court nor private inlishment of the city previous to the reign of Nero was eclipsed by the magnificent buildings of this emperor; but the greater part of these works, together with those of former days, perished in the conflagration which took place in his reign. His plan of restoring Rome was gigantic, and proved to be impracticable: he proposed to make Rome a port, and to connect it with the sea by long walls from the Capitol to Ostia. But all that he could do, notwithstanding his profusion, was to restore those parts of the city which had been destroyed. The face of the new city however

dividuals possessed sufficient wealth to raise buildings equal in form or material to those of their ancestors, and as heathen temples could not always be converted into Christian churches, they were generally pulled down and the materials used for other purposes. Numerous columns were thus moved from their places, and the remaining parts of the edifices were carried away and used by any person who chose to take them. During the fifth century of our æra great calamities were inflicted upon Rome by the ravages of the northern barbarians, though it is a mistake to suppose that the buildings of Rome

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