籍

C

ties of the rest of the Roman provinces, following alternately the fortunes of Marius or Sulla, of Cæsar or Pompey. By the peace of Misenum, Sextus Pompey retained Sardinia with Sicily and Achaia. But his freedman Menodorus, who was prætor of Sardinia, forsaking his master, gave up the island to Octavian. The island remained quiet during the period of the Empire, being considered by the Romans as one of their granaries and a penal colony for their criminals.

Tiberius sent thither 4000 Jews to make war upon the freebooters who plundered the country, or to die of its malaria. Pliny (iii. 7) mentions Caralis, Sulcis, Nora, and other places as towns that had the Roman civitas, and Turris Libysonis as a colonia.

Barisone, judge of Arborea, instigated by the Genoese, offered to the emperor Frederic I. a sum of 4000 silver marks, besides an annual tribute, for the investiture of the crown of all Sardinia, and he was actually crowned at Pavia by the bishop of Liège, acting for the emperor, the commune of Genoa being security for the payment. The other three judges however were not disposed to submit to Barisone, who appears to have been a shallow-headed man, and having received assistance from Pisa, they ravaged the territory of Arborea. The Genoese as protectors of Barisone, whom they kept in custody at Genoa for his debts, laid claim to his dominions, and sent a fleet to Sardinia, which sacked and burnt the city of Torres. After the war had lasted ten years, Barisone, who had been released After the death of Valentinian III., Genseric, king of the from custody, made his submission to the authorities of Vandals, invaded Sardinia from Africa. The emperor of the Pisa. The dominion of the island however remained long East, Leo, sent an expedition against Genseric, which retook after a constant subject of contention between Pisa and Sardinia, but the latter soon after recovered possession of it. Genoa, whilst the lords of the various provinces made themHis son Hunneric, being an Arian, like his father, perse- selves independent in reality. The emperor Frederic II. cuted the Catholics or orthodox with great cruelty, as well took advantage of this to make his natural son Hentzius as his successors. Sardinia became a place of banishment king of Sardinia. For this purpose he negociated, in 1238, for the orthodox prelates of the Vandal dominion. After a marriage between him and Adelasia, the relict of Ubaldo, the overthrow of the Vandal kingdom by Belisarius, Sar-judge or prince of Gallura and Torres, who had however dinia was annexed to the prefectship of Africa, and was already made a bequest of her territories in favour of the papal governed by an officer styled duke. About A.D. 594, Za- see, in case of her dying without issue. Hentzius was probardy, duke of Sardinia, having defeated the tribe of Bar- claimed king of Sardinia, and having possession in right of baricini, obliged them to abandon idolatry as a condition his wife of the two northern judicatures, he added to them of pardon. This, forced convention however was eluded by that of Arborea, whose judge, Pietro di Capraia, had thrown many, and the archbishop Januarius went to Rome to com- off his allegiance to Pisa. Cagliari alone continued in the plain that by giving a fee to the military officers of the em- allegiance of the republic. The subsequent disputes howperor, the natives were allowed to sacrifice to their heathen ever between Frederic II. and the pope made Hentzius and deities. the Pisans, who were Guibelines, join together against the pope and the Genoese, and their combined fleet defeated, in 1241, a Genoese squadron, and took twenty-two galleys with a number of prelates, apostolic legates, and ambassadors, who were going to Rome to attend the general council convoked by Pope Gregory IX. Hentzius distinguished himself for his bravery and determination both in Sardinia and Sicily, where he fought for many years for his father against the pope and the Guelphs, until he was taken prisoner by the Bolognese in 1249, who kept him in confinement for the rest of his life, during which he bore the title of King of Sardinia. His title was however a mere name, and the various judges of the island ruled as independent princes, whilst Pisa and Genoa continued to fight for their respective claims to the nominal sovereignty. Cagliari and some other towns continued to be garrisoned by Pisan troops. After the defeat of the Meloria (A.D. 1284), by which the Pisan naval power was annihilated, proposals were made by the Genoese to release their numerous pri soners, provided Pisa would make a cession of Sardinia, and give up the castle of Cagliari into the hands of the Genoese; but the prisoners themselves, it is reported, protested against recovering their liberty at such a price. Some years after, Nino Visconti, judge of Gallura, related to the famous count Ugolino, acted a considerable part in the civil broils of Pisa, which ended with the catastrophe of Ugolino and his family.

Pope Gregory the Great, in his Epistles, complains of the loose conduct of the clergy of Sardinia. The Saracens began, about the year 720, to ravage the coasts of Sardinia; and as the Byzantine emperors were unable to protect their distant dependencies, the natives applied for assistance first to the Longobards, and afterwards to Louis le Debonnaire, Charlemagne's son, to whom they tendered their allegiance.

About the year 1000, Musait, a Moorish chieftain, sailed from Africa to Cagliari with a large force, took it, and conquered the greater part of the island, and assumed the title of king of Sardinia.

Musait, not content with the possession of Sardinia, sent from thence armed vessels to ravage the coasts of Italy. The pope issued a bull against him, offering the investiture of the island to those who should drive him out of it. The Pisans sent an armament which took possession of Cagliari. Musait came with a strong force by sea and by land, A.D. 1015, and obliged the Pisan garrison to capitulate, but massacred the Pisans as they came out of the town. Musait then sailed for the coast of Luna in Italy, and surprised and sacked that town. He was however attacked in his retreat, and lost most of his men, and even his wife, who was taken prisoner and beheaded. Musait escaped to Sardinia. The pope's legate now persuaded the Genoese to join the Pisans against Musait. The combined forces of the two republics attacked the Moors and drove them away from both Sardinia and Corsica (A.D. 1016-1017). After this 'the Genoese kept for themselves Corsica and Capraja, and the Pisans had Sardinia.' (P. B. Burghi, De Dominio in Mari Ligustico.) Musait however, having obtained reinforcements from Africa, was still in the field in Sardinia, when the Genoese again assisted the Pisans in driving him away, A.D. 1022. The island being finally cleared of the Moors, the Pisans divided it into four provinces, called Giudicature, and appointed Pisan noblemen over each, styled Giudice,' each independent of the others, but all feudatory to Pisa. Cagliari in the south, Torres in the north, Gallura in the east, and Arborea or Oristano in the west, were the names of the four judicatures. Some places along the northern coast were however assigned to the Genoese, among others Castel Sardo, which was for a long time in the possession of the Doria family, who built a castle near it, still called Castel Doria.

In 1297, pope Boniface VIII., wishing to obtain the crown of Sicily for his protegé Charles II. of Anjou, king of Naples, induced James of Aragon to give up Sicily, in exchange for which Boniface, in the plenitude of his assumed power of disposing of crowns and principalities, gave James the investiture of the kingdom of Sardinia as a fief of the see of Rome. Although the Sicilians themselves did not consent to the exchange, and proclaimed Frederic, James's brother, as their king, the investiture of Sardinia was confirmed to James by pope Clement V., in 1309. James however was not ready to enforce his claim till 1323, when he made large preparations on the coast of Catalonia for an expedition to Sardinia. The Pisans reinforced their garrisons in the island, and granted an amnesty to all outlaws who should enlist in their service. Hugo, judge of Arborea, however threw off his allegiance, and in order to facilitate the Aragonese occupation, he laid a plot for massacring all the Pisans in his dominions, which extended The republic of Genoa however was dissatisfied at not over the whole western part of the island. The plot being having a larger share of the island, and this creating a feel-executed with the most merciless punctuality, he dispatched ing of bitter animosity, led to those disastrous wars between Pisa and Genoa, which, after a lapse of more than two centuries, ended with the ruin of the maritime power of the former. [PISA, HISTORY OF.] Sardinia meantime continued under its 'judges' liege to Pisa, till 1164, when P. C., No. 1285.

a messenger to Barcelona to hasten the departure of the expedition. In June the Infante Don Alonso arrived in the Gulf of Palmas, and having landed his troops, was joined by Hugo and some of the native nobles, who tendered their allegiance to his father the king of Aragon. The combined VOL. XX.-3 K

In December, 1792, the National Convention, having declared war in the name of the French Republic against the king of Sardinia, sent a lage fleet under Admiral Truguet to attack the island. The Sards however had made some preparations for resistance, and the French, on anchoring before Cagliari, in January, 1793, met with a hot reception from the forts and batteries, whose fire greatly damaged their ships. They landed 5000 men near Quartu, but were repulsed by the natives, who are generally good marksmen and accustomed to the use of fire-arms. A storm which arose completed the discomfiture of the expedition, by the loss of a line-of-battle ship and several smaller ones. The French admiral, after uselessly hom barding the town for several days, reimbarked the soldiers and sailed away, leaving several hundred men killed or prisoners.

forces then besieged Iglesias, and after several months' resis- and was ruled for two centuries by triennial viceroys sent tance the Pisan garrison capitulated through famine. The In- from Spain, under whose administration the country sunk fante then proceeded to blockade Cagliari by sea and land. A into decay, like Sicily, Naples, and the rest of the Spanish Pisan fleet of fifty-two galleys arrived in the gulf in the spring dependencies. In the war of the Spanish succession the of 1324, and landed a body of troops, which were joined by mountaineers of Gallura having declared themselves for some of the natives, but being defeated by the Aragonese, Charles of Austria, an English fleet under Sir John Leake a treaty was concluded by which Sardinia was given up by appeared before Cagliari, and the viceroy capitulated, and the republic to the crown of Aragon, on condition that the the island acknowledged Charles; but by the peace of Pisan inhabitants and their property should be respected, and Utrecht, in 1713, Charles having resigned his claims to Spain, that the castle and suburbs of Cagliari, with the port, and the Sardinia was given to him as emperor. In 1717 Alberoni, adjoining lakes should remain in possession of Pisa, on pay- the minister of Philip V., sent a large force in the midst of ment of an annual tribute as a sign of homage to the king peace, under the Marquis de Lede, which took possession of Aragon. This arrangement did not last long; mutual re- of Sardinia in less than two months. [ALBERONI. By the criminations took place between the parties, and in the follow- treaty of London of 1720, Philip was obliged to restore Sarng year, the Pisan squadron being entirely defeated by the dinia, which was finally given to Victor Amadeus, duke of Aragonese in the Bay of Cagliari, the town was evacuated, and Savoy, who then assumed the kingly title. From that time Sardinia was entirely lost to Pisa. But the judges were no the history of Sardinia becomes closely connected with that more inclined to submit to their new masters than to the of the house of Savoy. [SARDINIAN STATES.] Under the Pisans, and being assisted by the Genoese colonists of Castel government of that dynasty Sardinia has materially imSardo and Castel Doria they blockaded Sassari, and carried proved. King Charles Emmanuel III., in particular, has on for many years a destructive warfare against the Arago- been a great benefactor to Sardinia. Overgrown abuses in nese. At last Peter the Ceremonious, king of Aragon, landed the local administration were corrected, a better police was in 1354 with a strong force at Porto Conte, and having tra- formed, the national laws were confirmed, education was versed and pacified the principal part of the island, made encouraged, Monti Frumentarii were founded for the assisthis public entry into Cagliari, where in April of the follow-ance of small farmers, commercial tribunals were established, ing year, with a view of checking the influence of the as well as the post-office, the Board of Health, and other infactious chiefs, he convoked a general parliament, after the stitutions of civilised states. model of the Cortes of Spain, consisting of prelates, peers, and commons, which was called 'Stamenti,' or Estates. He thus laid the foundation of a representative government in Sardinia, which, although on a contracted basis, has been the means of saving the island from military despotism, and still subsists at the present day. Neither Mariano, judge of Arborea, nor Doria, the head of the Genoese faction, attended the congress; and after Peter had returned to Spain, Mariano intrigued with pope Urban V. to obtain the investiture of the island for himself. His death in the plague of 1376 prevented his succeeding in his projects, and his son Hugo, who was as ambitious as his father, was murdered by his own subjects at Oristano in 1383. Brancaleone Doria, who had married Eleanor, daughter of Mariano, offered his services to the king of Aragon to bring the whole of Sardinia into subjection; but his wife, who was equally as ambitious as her father and brother had been, put herself at The king of Sardinia, pleased with his insular subjects, the head of a strong party of natives, who named her son invited them to ask for anything that they might think judge of Arborea. Brancaleone, who had gone to Spain, useful for the island. The Sards demanded, 1, the convowas detained there as a hostage, and after fruitless negoci- cation of the stamenti; 2, the confirmation of their laws, ations, Eleanor took the field, being joined by the people of customs, and privileges; 3, that all offices in the island, Gallura, and drove the Aragonese from almost the whole except that of viceroy, should be held by natives; 4, the northern division of the island. She ruled for several years establishment of a council to advise the viceroy; 5, permisby the name of Giudicessa,' but in fact as queen of Sardinia, sion to send a minister to reside at Turin and watch over and she compiled for her subjects the 'Carta de Logu,' or their interests. The Piedmontese ministers however discode of laws already noticed. This remarkable woman died suaded the king from listening to the petition; situations of the plague in 1403, and her only son dying in 1407, with- continued to be filled with Piedmontese, and the consequence out issue, the Sards invited over the viscount of Narbonne, was that insurrections broke out in 1794 and 1795, and the husband of Beatrice, Eleanor's sister. But the viscount commander-in chief and the intendant-general were killed found an opponent in Brancaleone Doria, who after his by the people of Cagliari. By the mediation however of the wife's death had taken possession of Arborea, and was sup- archbishop of Cagliari and of the pope, a general act of ported by the Genoese in the north. Martin, king of Sicily, amnesty was proclaimed in 1796, and some of the demands son of Martin of Aragon, being then in Spain, urged his of the islanders were granted. When King Charles Emfather to prepare an expedition for the recovery of Sardinia. manuel IV. was driven away by the French from his contiThe nobility of Catalonia, Valencia, and Aragon were sum- nental states, the Stamenti of Sardinia sent a deputation to moned for the purpose, and the armament, headed by the him at Leghorn to assure him of the entire devotion of the younger Martin, sailed from Barcelona in the spring of people. The king and his family landed at Cagliari, in March, 1489. Having landed and entered Cagliari, he issued 1799, where they where received with enthusiasm. The from thence with 8000 foot and 3000 horse against the forces king however returned soon after to the Continent, and in of both Doria and the Viscount, who had united against 1802 abdicated in favour of his brother Victor Emmanuel him. A battle took place at S. Luri, in June, 1409, in who, having lost all hopes of recovering his continental dowhich the Aragonese obtained a complete victory, Doria was minions, repaired to his island kingdom in February, 1805. taken prisoner, and the Viscount fled precipitately. Martin Protected from external attack by his alliance with England, however died shortly after of the malaria fever, and the Victor resided in Sardinia till the fall of Napoleon, in 1814 Viscount continued to carry on the war. At last Alfonso During his residence at Cagliari he paid much attention to V. of Aragon obtained the formal cession of the province of the agriculture of the island, as well as to the administra Arborea, in 1428, by paying 100,000 gold florins to the heir tion, but his pecuniary means were very limited. Still he of the late viscount of Narbonne, and the whole island be- was liked, although. the expenses attending the residence same subject to the crown of Aragon. In 1492 Ferdinand of a court, however modest, as it necessarily was, pressed the Catholic established the Inquisition in Sardinia, and heavily upon a people under feudal tenure. Some local ordered the expulsion of all Jews who refused to be bap- disturbances occurred in 1807, in the northern part of the tised, and their synagogues to be converted into churches. island, the people of which have always been more easily From that time the Jews have not been tolerated in Sar-excited than those of the south. On this occasion the indinia. surrection assumed something of the character of a servic By the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, Sar-war, the peasantry against the nobles, the former pretending dinia became an appendage of the vast Spanish monarchy, to be zealous for the predominance of the king's authority

SARDINIAN STATES (STATI SARDI) is the name of the dominions of the house of Savoy, which constitute a monarchy, the head of which derives his title of king from the island or kingdom of Sardinia. These states consist of -1. the duchy of SAVOY; 2, the principality of PIEDMONT, in its larger sense; 3, the duchy of GENOA; 4, the county of Nizza; 5, the island of SARDEGNA, which forms a sepa-bers or bodies of the clergy. rate state, and has its own distinct administration. A geographical description of each of these great divisions is given under their respective heads. The continental territories, 'Stati di Terra Ferma,' which have a population of 3,675,000

on the Roman and canon laws. The penal laws were very rolled for eight years more in the provincial battalion of his severe; blasphemy and sacrilege were punished by the gal- respective district. In time of war the provincial battalions leys or death; a very extensive interpretation was given to the are called into active service, and the army becomes thereby crime of high treason, which was punishable in most cases by increased to 100,000 men. The regular regiments are formed death and confiscation; the same penalties were inflicted on into brigades of two regiments, each regiment having three duellists; domestic theft was punished in most cases by battalions; the battalion consists of six companies, each of death; the body of a suicide was hanged; usury was pun- which musters 176 rank and file. There are ten brigades of ished by confiscation; the use or simple possession of offen- infantry, namely, Guardi, Regina, Savoy, Piemonte, Aosta, sive weapons was punishable by the galleys; libels were left Cuneo, Casale, Pinerolo, Savona, and Acqui. The cavalry to the discretion of the judge, who could inflict even the consists of seven regiments, one of which is raised by volunpunishment of the galleys for life, according to the circum-tary enlistment in the island of Sardinia. There are two stances of the case. Correctional matters were left entirely regiments of artillery, besides the train, a battalion of sapto the discretion of the Tribunali di Prefettura.' The pers and miners, and a corps of engineers. The corps of method of proceeding in criminal cases is the same as it carabineers, a numerous and most effective body of cavalry, was in the last century in most other parts of continental consisting of picked men, is, like the French gendarmes, Europe, and still is in some, that is to say, secret, the depo- charged with the police of the country, being scattered in sitions being taken in writing, and the witnesses, as well as stations or detachments all over the various provinces. Both the accused, being examined privately by the instructing men and officers receive much higher pay than the line, and judge, and often by the judge di mandamento, or local are handsomely dressed and accoutred. They are generally justice of the district where the offence had been committed; trusty and well-behaved men, above temptation or bribery, upon which the fiscal advocate, or king's attorney, draws the civil to travellers, and are noted for their devotedness to the act of accusation, a copy of which is given to the accused, monarchy, of which they gave abundant proofs during the whose counsel replies to it in his defence. One of the insurrectionary movements of 1821 and 1831. judges delegated for the purpose examines the acts of the proceedings for and against the accused, and makes his report to the court, which, after examining and comparing the conclusions of the fiscal advocate with those of the council for the defence, pronounces its sentence. Neither the accused nor the witness appears before the court, nor is the accused confronted with the witnesses against him, except in rare cases.

The punishment of the wheel, which was in use in 1817, has been abolished since, as well as the torture. A new code, entitled Codice Albertino, has been promulgated very lately by the reigning king Carlo Alberto, but not having seen it, we cannot say how far it differs from the old one.

The towns and other communes have a communal council composed of notables of the place, at the head of which is the syndic, who is appointed by the king, and renewed every two years. The council superintends the local and economical administration of the commune, but its acts are subject to the sanction of the intendente of the province. The communes vary greatly in size, and especially in the amount of population, from 200 inhabitants to 120,000, which is the population of that of Turin. The very populous communes, consisting of large towns, such as Turin, Genoa, Alessandria, &c., have two syndics.

The city of Turin has a kind of charter with peculiar and extensive privileges, a numerous municipal council called Corpo Decurionale (council of civil administration), and a Vicariato, or judicial and political council, which superintends the police of the town; a Consiglio degli Edili, composed of architects and engineers, to superintend all buildings, works, and embellishments of the capital, and a Segreteria, or finance department, the city of Turin being possessed of large revenues derived from the octroi and other local taxes, besides landed property and manorial estates, with feudal jurisdiction over several villages. It is styled in public documents, L'Illustrissima Citta di Torino, Contessa di Grugliasco, Signora di Beinasco.'

The government in the Continental states of the house of Savoy is an absolute monarchy, the king being the sole source of law. All the laws emanate from him, and are promulgated in his name. He can abrogate all decisions and sentences even of judicial bodies. He imposes the taxes, and has the uncontrolled administration of the revenue. He or his delegates in his name appoint to all offices civil, military, and judicial. This form of pure monarchy dates from the reign of Duke Emmanuel Philibert, who, in the sixteenth century, abolished political feudality, and by doing away with the military services of the great vassals, and substituting a payment in money, formed a stipendiary regular infantry, and created the militia called provincial battalions, which was raised from every province in proportion to its population, and being exercised once every year, and receiving one-third of the regular pay in time of peace, was liable to be called out in time of war to join the regular forces. This system continues with some modifications to the present day in all the continental states, the army being recruited yearly by means of a conscription. Every conscript, unless he provides a substitute, is bound to serve eight years in the regular army, after which he is en

The naval force consists of four ships of war, four frigates, two corvettes, and two brigs of war, carrying in all 526 guns, and manned by 3450 men, besides 11 companies of cannoniers, or naval artillerymen, and one battalion of marines. The stations of the royal navy are at Genoa, Villafranca, and in the island of Sardinia. All sailors of merchant vessels and craft in the Continental dominions have their names registered in their respective districts, and when men are wanted for the royal navy, each district is obliged to furnish its quota. The same system prevails in France, and is called inscription maritime;' it is in fact a regularised system of impressment under another name, although French and other Continental writers are apt to declaim against the English impressment, which they call tyrannical, forgetting their own much more oppressive conscription of landsmen, and their inscription' of seafaring people.

The king's ministry consists of a secretary of state for foreign affairs, a secretary of war and marine, a secretary of finances, and a secretary for the 'interno,' or home department, which is divided into the following offices or boards: -1, General affairs, king's household, ceremonials, and precedence; 2, grace and justice; 3, ecclesiastical affairs, Valdenses, and Jews; 4, communal affairs, public works, waters, and forests; 5, board of trade and statistics, sciences. belles-lettres, and the fine arts; 6, board for the affairs of the island of Sardinia; 7, board of police. There are also a grande cancelleria, or board for receiving and examining memorials to the king, and reporting to him thereupon; an intendant, or master of the royal household, with many subalterns; a superintendant of the private domain and purse of the king; and a private secretary of his majesty, and a very numerous household.

The public revenue of the Continental states is sixty-nine millions of Italian livres or francs, of which seventeen millions are derived from the land-tax, which absorbs one-sixth or one-seventh of the annual rent of the land; thirty-two millions proceed from the gabelle, or customs and excise; the rest is made up of the post-office, registry-duty, monopoly of salt and tobacco, and other sources. The public debt amounted in 1834 to eighty-seven millions of francs. (Serristori, Statistica dell' Italia.)

The revenue of the island of Sardinia amounts to about 2,750,000 francs, derived from donativi,' as they are called, voted by the stamenti, and by indirect taxes, such as customs, salt, tobacco, and gunpowder, the fisheries, and the forage and royal patrimony, besides a small subsidy of 17,000 francs paid by the clergy.

The ecclesiastical administration of the Continental states is under the four archbishops of Turin, Chambéry, Genoa, and Vercelli, and twenty-six bishops, of Maurienne, Tarantaise, Annecy, Aosta, Susa, Pinerolo, Acqui, Alba, Asti, Cuneo, Fossano, Ivrea, Mondovi, Saluzzo, Alessandria, Biella, Casale, Novara, Vigevano, Albenga, Nizza, Bobbio, Sarzana, Savona, Tortona, and Ventimiglia. The number of parishes is 3756, that of collegiate churches, besides cathedrals, is 74, and that of clerical seminaries 54. In 1833 an ecclesiastical academy for the higher theological studies was instituted at Superga near Turin. There are in all the Continental states 241