nature. In modern phraseology the term is restricted to certain chronic enlargements and indurations of the body of the testis, of a perfectly benignant character, but inconvenient on account of their size and weight. These swellings may continue for years without undergoing any visible change, or a sudden increase in their bulk may arise, and the testicle be converted into a painful, ulcerated, and incurable mass of disease. Sarcocele may be distinguished from hydrocele, the disease which most nearly resembles it, by its hardness, weight, and want of transparency; but occasionally the two diseases are met with together, and this compound affection is called hydrosarcocele. With respect to the treatment of sarcocele, various and rather opposite remedies have at times proved successful. When the enlargement is accompanied by pain or any degree of inflammation, leeches, hot fomentations, and poultices applied externally, with the administration of an emetic, and the adoption of a general antiphlogistic regimen, would seem to be indicated. When the disease is altogether chronic, stimulating lotions, liniments, or ointments may be applied to the swelling. In either case, the use of a suspensory bandage or bag truss for the support of the part should not be neglected. If these means fail in arresting the progress of the disease, extirpation of the gland must be had re course to. SARCOÏDEA, a group of Polypiaria, of which the type is the old Linnæan genus Alcyonium. On a general view of the structures of invertebral animals, we perceive in regard to their dermal system variations of much importance, coincident with the habits of life to which the individuals are destined. Among the acephalous mollusca, for example, it is a beautiful subject of investigation to examine into the use of the shelly valves which open and shut for respiration and motion in the Cardiaceae, which open for respiration only in the oyster, and which are not required to open at all in the same sense in the Pholadariæ. Comparing with these last the Tunicata, we pass gradually down to the Ascidioid Polypiaria, and thus become familiarised with the ciliary movements and aquiferous tubes of the different groups of polypi. The relation of the hard parts associated with the retractile substance of polypi to the way of life of these animals, is probably in reality quite as close and important as among the mollusca, but it is not so obvious. In the stony radiated plate of Fungia, the stony internal ramose axis of Corallium, the half-stony and half-horny axis of Isis, the wholly horny axis of Antipathes, and the fibrous skeletons of Alcyonium and Spongia, we see in general terms the use of these parts as supports (fulcra') to the more active and animated parts, affording the requisite attachments, and permitting the assumption of suitable general shapes. Though insulated in some degree from the soft animal parts, they are perhaps not to be viewed as merely inorganic or even extravascular parts, any more than the wood of a dicotyledonous tree, which no longer serves to convey in a healthy condition the fluids which are circulated through it. These considerations give more importance to the classifications of Polypiaria from the stony, horny, fleshy, or gelatinous character of their mass, than might at first sight In the Sarcoid (or sarcinoid, or carnose) Polypiappear. aria we may imagine the distinct collected axis of Corallium or Pennatula to be ramified and reticulated, and so involved (empâté) in the more active gelatinous mass, as to lose its distinctive character; we have then the alcyonium. One step further, let this expanded reticulation of fibres acquire somewhat more of rigidity, and the gelatinous mass, still united with it, become apolypiferous (as a plant may be supposed to become flowerless), and we have the sponge, perhaps the last, and yet not really doubtful term in the descending series of radiated invertebral life. Lamouroux employs the title Polypiaria Sarcoïdea for one of his three great divisions of Polypiaria (1821). The arrangement stands thus: Div. 1. Supports flexible or not entirely stony. 2. 3. central axis. This division includes three orders, viz.:- Polyclinic (belonging to Junicata). pora, Hypalimus, Lymnoria, Pelagia, Montlivaltia, Isaura, Ierea. (These are fossil groups.) This system is mainly based on the previous labours of Lamarck (1816), who placed Alcyonium in his group of Polypiers empatés, but gave, after Savigny (to whom we owe most of our knowledge of these animals), in his group of Polypiers tubifères, the genera Anthelia, Xenia, Ammothea, Lobularia. Blainville (1834) includes in his Sarcinoïdea, the fourth family of Zoophytaria, the Alcyonoid types of organization, and notices eleven genera, viz. Briareum, Lobularia, Ammothea, Xenia, Nepthya, Anthelia, Alcyonium, Cydonium, Pulmonellum, Massarium, Cliona; but remarks that several of them are of small importance. In Dr. Johnston's very commendable arrangement (British Zoophytes, p. 75, 76, 1838) the Alcyonidæ form a family of Asteroid Polypiaria. From Blainville we take the following characters of the family and the genera : Family, Sarcoidea or Sarcinoïdea. Animals polypiform, with (mostly) eight pinnated tentacula, more or less immersed, and scattered on the surface of a common polymorphous, irregular, fleshy, adherent mass; the mass is composed of one (suberiform) substance, and supported by (calcareous) aciculæ. (The animals much resemble those of Pennatula.) N.B. All the genera have eight pinnated tentacula, except when the contrary is mentioned. Genus Briareum, Blainville. Animals thick, issuing from prominences irregularly scattered on the polyparium, which is widely attached, subramose, externally composed of a fleshy thick distinct envelope, internally composed of an assemblage of closely fasciculated acicula. Example.-Briareum gorgonoideum. (Gorgonia Briareus, Linn., Gmel.) Sol. and Ellis, tab. 14, figs. 1 and 2. Genus Lobularia. Animals entirely retractile into suboctangular cells, which are scattered on the mass, but are especially more numerous on the digitated extremities thereof: mass more or less pedicellated and widely attache. Example.-Lobularia digitata. (Alcyonium manus diaboli.) Common on the English coasts. Dr. Johnston retains for this group the name Alcyonium. Genus Ammothea, Savigny. Animals rather short, not retractile, scattered, and numerous on the whole surface of the short crowded divisions of a common plant-like attached mass. (The nonretractility of the Polypi is the main character.) Example.-Ammothea virescens. Red Sea. Genus Xenia, Savigny. Pinnules of the tentacula in several rows; tentacula ties of short-lobed ramifications from a membranaceous not retractile at the base: animals collected at the extremibase. Example.-Xenia umbellata, Savigny. Red Sea. Genus Nepthya, Savigny. Animals not retractile, prominent on the surface of many hook-formed spiculiferous lobes, supported on pedicles from a common enlarged base of attachment. Example.-Nepthya Savignii. (Blainville's 'Actinologie,' pl. 88, fig. 6.) Egypt. Genus Anthelia. Animals half-retractile and prominent on (herissant) the surface of a crustiform attached mass. Example-Anihelia glauca, Savigny. Red Sea. Genus Alcyonium, Fleming. (Adopted by Blainville.) Circle of tentacula complete: fleshy bases arborescent, investing or adnate, and regularly covered with polypiferous papillæ. According to Lamouroux and Fleming, Alcyonium gelatinosum (Alcyonidium, Lam.) has 12, A. hirsutum 18 to 20, and A. echinatum 12 simple tentacula. They cannot therefore even belong to this family. The old genus Alcyo nium is in fact lost in the modern divisions, or applied to forms and structures materially different. Genus Cydonium, Jameson. Animals with an orifice at the base of each of the tentacula, and retractile into stelliform cells scattered in the Actinaria, in which are seven genera, viz. Chenendo- surface of the mass, which is externally coriaceous, inter nally fleshy, and contains numerous stiff spiculæ perpen- | the embalmed body of Alexander the Great was placed; but dicular to the surface. Animals cylindric, slender, transparent, with 8 simple tentacula, contained in papilloso-tubular cells; mass fleshy, spiculiferous, anastomosed. Example.-Cliona celata, Grant. English Channel and North Sea. On reviewing this series of genera it is very apparent that the group is not by any means completely defined or satisfactorily divided. If the tentacula may be pinnated, or simple, and from 6 to 20 in number, and the substance transparent or coriaceous, gelatinous, or fibrous, the family is not properly characterized. Most of the fossil species from the chalk and oolites, often referred to Alcyonoidea, are more probably of the spongoid type-the Amorphozoaria of Blainville. from a consideration of the chief facts of his funeral and other circumstances, it is almost demonstrable that the sar cophagus was not made for him, and it is indeed improbable that his body was ever placed in it. Another very large sarcophagus in the Museum appears to be made of a species of black basalt, or perhaps a breccia. It has some sculptures upon it, which have been called volutes, but to which in reality they have little resemblance The intaglios upon it are less numerous than on the former but many of them are of a larger size. There is one, also in the Museum, which is a very fine specimen of Egyptian workmanship. It is made of a very compact black stone. Though it differs very little in general form from the other sarcophagi, it is so made as to be in fact a mummy-case of stone instead of wood, sculptured inside so as to give room for the round parts of the body and the projecting part that indicates the feet. It was probably intended to be placed erect like the other mummy cases. A beautiful sarcophagus of arragonite was discovered by Belzoni in the great tomb which he opened at Thebes. It has the appearance of white alabaster, and is translucent when a candle is placed in it. It is sculptured within and without with figures not more than two inches high. It is 9 feet 5 inches long, 3 feet 7 inches wide, and 2 inches thick. This unique specimen was bought by Sir John Soane from Mr. Salt. The two sarcophagi found in the two great pyramids of Jizeh are of white granite. There are no hieroglyphics sculptured on either of them. For further information see the Library of Entertain ing Knowledge, Egyptian Antiquities,' from which this notice has been abridged. SARCO'PHILUS, the name by which M. F. Cuvier designates a genus of Marsupialia, founded on Dasyurus ursinus, Auct., Didelphys ursina, Harris, upon essential characters which, in the opinion of M. F. Cuvier, well distinguish it, and for some of which he acknowledges that he is indebted to Professor Owen, who communicated to him a skull of the animal. SARCO'MA is a morbid tumour whose tissue is fleshy and moderately firm. Several species of sarcoma were described by Mr. Abernethy in his 'Classification of Tumours,' such as the common vascular sarcoma, the adipose or fatty kind, the pancreatic, the mammary, &c. Some of these still retain the same names, but in general the term sarcoma has no other meaning in surgical works than the indefinite one already given, and includes all fleshy tumours that are not cancerous, or medullary, or melanotic. [Tu-out in the last part of his Histoire Naturelle des MammiMOUR.] SARCO'PHAGUS (from a Greek word, oapropάyos, which literally signifies flesh-eater), the name given to the Egyptian stone coffins. It is not known when this strange term was first applied to them, nor why. These coffins consist of two parts, a case formed of one piece, and open at the top, in which the mummy was to be deposited, and a lid to cover the opening. As these sarcophagi are generally of hard stone, and often extremely hard, the working of them must have been very expensive, and they could only have been made for kings and very rich persons. There are several fine specimens in the British Museum; one, which was brought from Alexandria after the capture of that city from the French, is probably unequalled by any other yet discovered. It was found by the French in the court of a mosque of St. Athanasius at Alexandria, under a small building, where it was a sort of object of adoration to the Mussulmans, who however had drilled two large holes in the bottom of it in order to use it as a reservoir of water or a bath. The material is a sort of breccia, similar to the Italian breccia verde, and is composed of rounded fragments of granite and porphyry set in a basis of deep green rock. The porphyry is of the most brilliant and varied colours. Though the stone is excessively hard and difficult to work, more than a hundred square feet of its surface have been sculptured with hieroglyphics of the most delicate workmanship, and so small that sometimes ten or twelve are included in a square inch. The number of hieroglyphic characters is said to exceed 21,700. The sarcophagus is rounded at the head and flat at the feet, the rest of it being like a large box. It is about 10 feet 3 inches long, 4 feet 2 inches wide at the feet, 5 feet 4 inches wide at the head, and 3 feet 9 inches in depth. The thickness, measured across the flat rim on the top, varies from about 9 to 10 inches. It is sculptured both within and without with various figures of men and animals, many of the animal forms being of the most easy and correct outline. Dr. Clarke wrote a dissertation to prove that this sarcophagus was the one in which M. F. Cuvier states that Sarcophilus approaches nearer to the Thylacini than to the Dasyuri, but that it is very different from either. These differences are well pointed fères,' where a very good figure of the animal is given. That by Harris, in Linn. Trans.,' from which the cut illustrating the history of the animal, in the article MARSUPIALIA [vol xiv., p. 455], is taken, does not convey a satisfactory idea of the form which we have seen alive in this country, and which is well represented in M. Cuvier's figures, of which the subjoined cuts are copies. SARDANAPAʼLUS is the name by which the Greek | and Roman writers designate the last king of Assyria. He was a wealthy and powerful king, and is said to have built two towns, Anchiale and Tarsus, in one day. (Steph. Byz., v. 'Ayxián; Suidas, v. Zapdaváraλos; comp. Herod., ii. 150.) But he was a man of voluptuous habits, and spent his life in his palace at Ninus or Ninive, surrounded by women. The only event of his life in which he is said to have acted like a man was also the last. The common account of the mode in which he ended his life, at the time when his kingdom fell into the hands of the Medes, is given by Diodorus Siculus (ii. 24-27) and Justin (i. 3). Arbaces, who was his satrap in Media, one day with great difficulty obtained admission to his master, and to his astonishment found him engaged in his usual unmanly occupations among his concubines. Filled with indignation, Arbaces on his return declared to his friends that he could no longer obey such a king. A conspiracy was formed, and Arbaces, with his Medes, joined by Beiesys, a Babylonian priest (probably a Chaldaean), marched against Ninive (comp. Herod., i. 95). | Sardanapalus at first endeavoured to conceal himself; according to others, he marched out to meet the rebels, and was successful in three battles; and then, thinking himself safe, he gave himself up to his usual pleasures, and prepared a grand feast for his army. Arbaces however in the mean time surprised the king's camp, routed the enemy, and drove the king with a few followers back to his capital. Here Sardanapalus maintained himself for two years, though deserted by all the provinces, and when at last he saw that further resistance was useless, he caused a pyre to be raised on which he burnt himself with all his treasures and his women. Assyria thus fell into the hands of the Medes, who united it with Media. The time of this event is uncertain; some suppose that it took place about 880, some again place it in the year 717, and others in 606 B.C. The name of King Sardanapalus, both in antient and in modern times, has been used proverbially to express the highest degree of voluptuousness and effeminacy. SARDEGNA, SARDINIA, a large island in the Mediterranean Sea, situated between 38° 52′ and 41° 17' N. lat. from Cape Spartivento, the most southern point, to Cape Longosardo on the north, and between 8° 4' and 9° 50' E. long. from Cape Caccia near Alghero, the most western point, to Cape Comino on the eastern coast. Its form is a parallelogram 140 nautical miles in length, with an average breadth of 60 miles, leaving out the projections. The area is a trifle larger than that of Sicily, according to the admeasurement of Captain Smyth, and so it was considered by Scylax, who places Sardinia before Sicily in point of size. (Cluverius, Sardinia Antiqua.) The eastern shore of Sardinia faces the coasts of Rome and Naples, the north-eastern point of the island, near Terranova, being about 150 miles west by south of the mouths of the Tiber, and Cape Carbonaro, at the south-eastern extremity, being about 300 miles west of the coast of Calabria. Cape Spartivento, the most southern point of Sardinia, is about 120 miles north of Cape Serrat on the coast of Tunis; and Cape Carbonaro, the south-east point, is 170 miles from Trapani on the north-west coast of Sicily. Towards the north, the narrowest part of the Straits of Bonifacio, which divide Sardinia from Corsica, is about nine miles across; to the westward, Port Mahon in the island of Minorca is about 200 miles distant from Cape Mannu near Oristano on the west coast of Sardinia; and the islands of Hyeres on the coast of Provence are about 180 miles from Asinara at the north-west extremity of Sardinia. The situation of Sardinia is therefore central with regard to Italy, Sicily, Barbary, France, and Spain. The island contains excellent harbours; S. Pietro and Porto Conte on the western coast, the roadsteads of Maddalena on the northern and Terranova on the eastern, besides the spacious bays of Cagliari, Palmas, Oristano, and Alghero, and the roadsteads of Vignola, Tortoli, and Porto Torres. A chain of primitive mountains runs from north to south along the whole eastern side of the island, occupying about one-third of its surface, and forming the wild districts of Gallura, Ogliastra, Barbargia, Sarabus, and Budui: this range consists of granite and schistus, with large masses of quartz, mica, and felspar. Few of the summits exceed 3000 feet, except the peak of Limbarra in the Gallura, which is 3686 feet high, and the group called Genargentu, which is near the centre of the island, and attains an elevation of 5276 feet. West of this highland region, and along the central length of the island, there is a succession of fine P. C., No. 1284. plains intersected by ranges of smaller hills, and stretching in some places as far as the western coast, such as at Oris tano and Alghero. The remaining part of the western coast is occupied by several unconnected mountain-groups, some primitive, some secondary, and others of volcanic formation, jutting out in numerous and picturesque headlands, and giving to that part of the island a more varied and pleasing aspect than the abrupt and iron-bound eastern coast. At the south-western extremity of the island are the mountains of Sulcis, consisting of granite and primitive limestone, separated from the eastern chain by the Campidano, or wide plain which spreads north of Cagliari towards Oristano. North of the Sulcis, and separated from it by the romantic valley of Iglesias, are the mountains of Murgiani and Arcuentu, which rise along the western coast, and the latter of which attains the height of 2315 feet. North of these lies the deep gulf of Oristano, and east of it is a great plain, through which flows the Tirsi, the principal river of Sardinia. North of this plain, and near the western coast, is the group of Monte Ferru, which rises 2796 feet about the sea; and farther north towards Alghero is Monte Minerva, 2400 feet high. A succession of highlands, partly of volcanic formation, extends north of the basin of the Tirsi, and quite across the breadth of the island, through the district of Goceano, and joins the mountains of Gallura on the eastern coast. This range divides the north-west part of the island from the remainder. At the northern base of it is the extensive plain called Campo d'Ozieri, and Campo di Giavesu, through which the river Coguinas flows to the northward. This plain is bounded on the north-west by a hilly tract, mostly of volcanic formation, one point of which, whereupon stands the town of Osilo, is 2000 feet high. West of this hilly tract is the plain of Sassari, extending from the northern coast at Porto Torres to the western sea towards Alghero. North-west of the plain of Sassari is the mountainous peninsula of Nurra, which stretches out into the sea, terminating in three abrupt headlands, Cape Caccia to the south, above 500 feet high, Cape Argentaro to the west. and Cape Falcon, the Gorditanum Promontorium of Ptolemy, to the north. A narrow and shallow strait, lined with sharp rocks, runs between this cape and the island of Asinara, the ancient Herculis Insula,' a mountainous island of a long irregular shape, indented by several gulfs and coves, and having nearly thirty miles of coast-line to a comparatively small surface. It is inhabited by a few shepherds and farmers. The north and west coasts of Asinara are very steep, Mont Scommunica, the principal elevation, being 1500 feet above the sea. The whole peninsula of Nurra is covered with mountains, the northern parts of which consist of great masses of granite with schistosé rocks, and the southern part is compact limestone with gypsum and quartz. The principal summits in this range are from 1400 to 2000 feet high. A volcanic district, as to which however there is no historical record of its having been in a state of activity, extends along the centre of the island, beginning at Monastir, north of Cagliari, and running northward between Nurri and Sardara: it comprehends the towns of Ales, Milis, and San Lussurgiu, which last is built in the crater of an extinct volcano. It then extends to Bonorva and Queremula, on the border of the great northern plain of Giavesu, where a crater is clearly distinguishable, which from its unbroken conical shape and fine red ashes bears the appearance o comparatively recent action; and the whole surrounding country consists of slaggy lava, rugged scoriæ, obsidian, and indurated pozzolana, with large hills of porphyritic tufa towards Bonorva, lying over calcareous rocks. The volcanic beds extend farther north, through Codrongianus and Osilo in the hilly region east of Sassari, where remains of craters occur, to Castel Sardo, on the northern coast, where they form abrupt cliffs 300 feet above the sea. The townwall and most of the houses of Cassel Sardo are built of lava. The river Coguinas forms on this side the geological boundary between the primitive formations of the eastern country, and the trap and volcanic products to the westward. At Nurri, in the southern part of the island, on the borders of the eastern highlands overlooking the Campidano, or great plain of Cagliari, are two hills called 'pizz' e ogheddu" and pizz' e ogu mannu,' meaning peaks of the little and great eye, which appear to have been ignivomous mouths. A volcanic stream has run from them over a calcareous tract, which forms an elevated plain or table-land nearly 1600 feet VOL. XX.-3 I above the sea, called Sa giara a Serri, from the neigh- | bouring village of Serri. This plain is covered with oak, ilex, and cork trees, while its northern declivity contains rich pasture. North-west of this plain is the 'Giara,' or lava bed of Gestori, of similar formation, which has proceeded from a crater near the town of Ales: it is strewed with masses of obsidian and trachytic and cellular lava, so as to resemble a city in ruins. At Monastir, in the plain north of Cagliari, there is a distinct double crater now well wooded, and a new bridge has been of late years constructed there of fine red trap, which, with the bold outline of the neighbourhood, renders the entrance to the village by the new road very picturesque. (Captain Smyth's Sketch of the present State of Sardinia, 1828.) The principal rivers of Sardinia are-1, the Tirsi, the Thyrsus of Ptolemy, which drains the central part of the island: it rises near Buduso on the west side of the Gallura mountains, flows first south and then south-west, along the base of the Goceano ridge, passes through the fine valley of Ottana, receiving several tributary streams from the mountains of Genargentu, and then flowing by Fordongianus, enters the plain of Oristano, passing north of that town, and then turning abruptly to the south enters the sea after a tortuous course of between 70 and 80 miles. In very dry summers it is fordable near its mouth, but in winter it contains a vast mass of water, and inundates considerable tracts. 2. The Coguinas, in the northern part of the island, rises in the volcanic region of Bonorva, flows northwards through the plains of Giavesu and Ozieri, receives several streams from the highlands of Goceano and of Gallura, passes between Mount Sassu and the Limbara ridge, when it assumes the name of Rio di Partidas, and flowing through a romantic ravine below the cliffs of Castel Doria, enters a fine plain adjoining the sea: it forms a small lake near its mouth, a few miles east of Castel Sardo. The course of the Coguinas is between 50 and 60 miles, and it is fordable near its mouth, except in rainy seasons. 3. The Flumendoso, the Sceprus of Ptolemy, the principal stream of the eastern part of the island, rises in the mountains of Corno di Bue and runs southwards along a high valley between the ridge of Genargentu on the west and the Ogliastra mountains to the east, passing through many solitary glens: it then turns eastward between the mountains of Sarrabus on one side and the hills of Parte Olla, which divide it from the Campidano or plain of Cagliari, and afterwards winding through the fertile grounds of Villa Puzzu, San Vito, and Muravera enters the sea between two low rocky points on which stand the towers of Xalinas and Corallo, after a course of between 50 and 60 miles. As it runs between two mountain-ridges, the basin of the Flumendoso is very narrow; in the winter it is swelled with the drainage of the surrounding mountainregion, and it then assumes a very imposing appearance. 4. The Mannu rises in the fountain of the Fig in the table-land of Sarcidanu on the south slope of the Genargentu ridge, and flowing southwards through the plain of the Campidano is joined by the Calarita from the mountains of Gergei on the east and the Sixerris which comes near Iglesias from the west: the united stream enters the lake of Cagliari, which lies west of that city and is six or seven miles long by three or four broad, and communicates with the sea by seven cuts through a narrow strip of sand. This lake is navigated by flat-bottomed boats, and contains abundance of eels, mullets, and other fishes; it is also frequented by flamingos and pelicans, which migrate thither in the winter, probably from the lakes of Bizerta and Tunis on the opposite coast of Barbary. Besides these four rivers there are many smaller streams, such as the Turritano, which flows through the plain of Sassari, and is crossed near its mouth by a substantial Roman bridge in excellent preservation; the Termo, or river of Bosa, on the western coast; the Cedrino, or river of Orosei, which is navigable by boats for about a mile and a quarter inland on the eastern coast; it is an abundant and impetuous stream from its source which is on the eastern slope of the Barbargia mountains. The climate of Sardinia varies greatly according to the seasons and localities. Along the coast the thermometer ranges, in the course of the year, from 34° to 90°; but it falls at times considerably lower in the highlands. The summits of Genargentu are often capped with snow in the course of the winter. The north-west wind is the healthiest. and the east or south-east the most noxious. Hail and thunder-storms are rare, but rain falls copiously in the autumn. In the summer the country is subject to long droughts, but the heavy dews of the night partly compen sate for the want of rain. Earthquakes are very rare and slight. The plains and some of the lower valleys of Sar dinia have been notoriously unhealthy ever since the time of the Romans. Cicero, Strabo, Martial, and in later times Dante, all speak in strong terms of the insalubrity of Sardinia. The malaria of Sardinia is called by the natives intemperie,' and it appears to be somewhat different from the malaria of Italy; it does not always produce swelled bodies and sallow skins, but it acts more rapidly than the Italian malaria, especially upon strangers, and instances are related of persons carried off by it in a day or two. The intemperie fever is caught during day as well as night, awake or asleep, whilst the malaria is considered most fatal at night and during sleep. Exposure to the midday heat and to the dew of the evening are equally fatal. The natives avoid as much as possible going out of doors until an hour after sunrise, and they hasten home before sunset, carefully closing every door and window, and if they are obliged to go out, they hold a handkerchief before their mouth. It is generally agreed that fire is an excellent preservative against the intemperie, and the former lords of Oristano used to burn large fires round the town every night. Most people remove from the plains to the higher grounds on St. John's da, the 24th of June, when the air begins to be unhealthy though it does not become dangerous till August, from which time it continues so to the end of November, when heavy rains precipitate the miasma and purify the air. The intemperie of Sardinia lasts therefore for a month or twɔ later than the malaria in the Maremme of Italy. Those people who are obliged by circumstances to remain, keep themselves well clad in thick woollens to protect themselves against the burning sun. Exertion, exposure to summer showers, and fatigue of all kinds are studiously avoided, and a spare but good diet is adopted, with cool acidulated drinks. In spite of these precautions however many persons die of the intemperie every year. The patient is first attacked by headache and a painful tension of the epigastric region, with alternate fits of heat and chilliness; fever ensues, the accesses of which are extremely severe, and are followed by great debility, which is injurious even to those who are accustomed to it, and generally fatal to strangers. Exhalations from the marshes and the beds of rivers which are nearly dry in summer, and putrescent vegetation, are active causes of the intemperie, though in Italy they appear not to be the only causes. [ROME, p. 91.] By draining the marshes, embanking the rivers, and cultivating the macchie,' or desert tracts which cover about one-third of the surface of the island, the intemperie might be diminished. Many Sards are of opinion that the green figs of infected districts are particularly deleterious. Corn grown on such grounds, on the contrary, is esteemed the finest. Hedges of the Ficu Moriscu,' or Cactus Opuntia, are supposed to increase the intemperie, by abstracting the evaporation from the earth, without absorbing moisture like other trees. Wherever the oleander flourishes, intemperie of the worst kind may be expected. The migrations caused by the intemperie, the scarcity of cottages, pastures, and enclosures, and the numerous tracts of uncultivated land, give to the plains of Sardinia an aspect of depopulation, especially in summer. The inhabitants of the plains are viewed by those of the highlands with marked contempt as weak and degenerate. The lands of Sardinia are divided into feudal and nonfeudal. Sardinia is now the only country in western Europe in which the feudal system remains. The feudal lands either belong to the respective nobles, several of whom are of Spanish families and non-resident, who entrust their domains to indolent podatarii,' or stewards, or have been sold to private individuals, who still recognise the feudal lord by paying him a trifling fee, and are under some restrictions, such as not planting vineyards or trees without his consent. The lands not feudal belong either to communities or individuals, and can be let or sold, or given away at the will of the owners. A small part of these lands are enclosed and well cultivated, and are called ⚫Tanche; but the larger proportion consist of Vidazzoni,' that is lands belonging to communities; they are mostly divided into three parts, each of which is cultivated in its turn, and while under culture is enclosed with a line of hurdles, and the rest, being fallow, is open to the wandering flocks, and is deemed common. The government has of late years issued decrees in favour of enclosures, and trees and hedges nave been planted in many places. The leases are short, often for two years only, and the rent is generally paid in kind. In some parts farms are let on the metayer system, as in many parts of France and Italy. One-third of the surface of the island consists of macchie, or waste, consisting of sandy or stony districts, and lakes and marshes; another third is occupied by forests or natural pastures; and the remainder, which is estimated at five millions and a half of starelli (a measure about four-fifths of an acre), consists of corn-fields, vineyards, olive-grounds, orchards, and gardens. About one million of these starelli are allotted for the growth of corn, and if diligently cultivated they would produce enough to support three times the actual number of inhabitants. Wheat, under the present system of agriculture, gives a return of only seven or eight for one, but in some favoured districts the average is from fifteen to twenty. The Sardinian plough resembles the aratrum of the Romans; it is light, and penetrates only two or three inches into the ground, and has no coulter. Most of the garden-grounds are worked with the hoe, the spade and mattock being generally unknown. The corn is left in the fields until it is threshed, which is performed by the treading of mares or colts on an area prepared by paring off the sward and beating the soil with a mallet to the requisite hardness. Windmills are unknown, and water-mills are only found in some places in the Capo di Sopra, or northern part of the island. Winnowing is managed by tossing up the corn into the air, for the wind to blow off the chaff. Corn is generally ground in a corner of the house by means of the mola asinaria,' or domestic mill, turned by an ass. There is no regular system of manuring the ground; it is done however sometimes when urgently required. Paring and burning are the common processes. The only artificial fodder for cattle is the 'mischiale,' a mixture of barley, lucerne, basil, and vetches, well known to the antients. Cattle, sheep, goats, and swine are divided into two classes; the manso,' or tame, being those which work or yield milk, wool, &c., are carefully tended and kept in the best pastures; and the rude,' which are for slaughter or for breeding, and which are allowed to ramble over hills and wastes almost in a wild state. Each flock or herd bears a particular mark on the ear. All the labour of the field is done by oxen. The breed of horses reared in the tanche, or enclosed grounds, is carefully attended to: horse-races are frequent. For the improvement of the breed there is a government establishment in the plain of Ghilarza, called Regia Tanca,' where Arabian and Spanish stallions are kept, and also Swiss bulls and rams. Sardinian horses are in general free from vice, patient of fatigue, and require but moderate food, and the Sards are generally very good horsemen. The very small horse, called acchetta,' which was antiently in esteem among the Roman ladies, is an easy-paced lively little animal. The mule is unknown. Oxen are used for drawing the carts, which are of the most primitive kind, like those in many parts of Portugal; the wheels are made of a solid piece of wood, and stuck round the edge with projecting triangular-headed nails, which are the only iron used in the whole machine. The axletree is fixed into the wheels, and turns round with them. Sardinia is better provided with forests than Sicily; the best timber is in the mountainous districts of Gallura, Barbargia, Goceano, Marghime, and Planargia. On the south west side of the ridge of Genargentu is an extensive elevated plain, called su Sarcidanu,' covered with fine oak, beech, thestnut, and cork trees, and on the Menomeni range, between San Lussurgiu and Macomer is another elevated plain called 'su littu de St. Antoni,' about nine miles wide and eleven or twelve long, covered with a rich forest. Fine woods are also found in the Giarre de Serri, and on the hills of Trebina and Arcuosa, and they abound with wild hogs and game. Pine-trees are not common except near Terra nova. The cork-tree grows very fine and in great quantity in the northern part of the island. Timber is very scarce in the plains, and the want of roads prevents the people from making use of that of the mountain forests. Dwarf mulberry-trees grow in abundance, but their cultivation is little attended to, although the government has repeatedly endeavoured to encourage the rearing of silkworms; and as early as 1788, a book was published at Cagliari, in both Sardinian and Italian, cailed Moriografia Sarda,' in the form of a dialogue, pointing out to the people the advantages of this branch of industry, and explaining the methods to be followed, but it seems to have produced little effect, at least as late as the years 1823-4, when Captain Smyth took his survey of the coasts of the island. Among fruit-trees, the fig, the vine, the apple, apricot, peach, almond, and prickly pear are the most common Walnuts and chestnuts are only met with in some places. Oranges, lemons, and citrons are cultivated chiefly in the southern districts of Iglesia and Villa Cidro, and near Sassari, but are not held in great esteem. Date-trees grow on the Campidano, and some of the produce is gathered and sold, but it is not of a good quality. Vegetables are fine and plentiful; peas and cabbage grow wild in the greatest luxuriance, and the asparagus of the hedges is abundant in the markets in March and April. Celery and tomatas are large and well flavoured. The torzo,' a kind of turnip-cabbage, grows to a gigantic size, weighing without the leaves eight or ten pounds. Saffron is cultivated, and is much used in cookery. The vine is extensively cultivated, both soil and climate being highly favourable to it; and though the process of making wine is still very imperfect, Sardinia produces some excellent wines. "The malvasia,' or malmsey-wine of Quarto, Cagliari, Bosa, and Sorso, the muscat wine of Alghero, the red wine of Alghero and Oristano, and the cananau, natue, and quarnacia of the Campidano are much esteemed. The natives in general make considerable use of wine. More common white wines are made near Sassari and Terralba, and also in the Campidano. About 2000 Catalan pipes of a hundred quartieri (the quartieri being about eleven pints English) are annually exported from Alghero, about 1700 pipes from Ogliastra on the eastern coast, and 500 or 600 from Cagliari. There are several extensive olive-grounds, but the oil has not yet been largely exported, although this branch of commerce is on the increase. The best olives are those of Sassari. Inferior oil is produced from the Ogliastra, or wild olive, which, with that made from the Lentiscus, serves the peasants for burning. Corn is the principal article of export, but the government does not allow the exportation unless the average price of wheat in the principal markets is under thirty reals (118. 3d.) the starello, each starello being about a bushel and a quarter Winchester measure. A heavy duty is also imposed on the exportation. The importation of foreign wheat is prohibited, if the average price is not above ten reals the starello. The greater part of the wheat raised in Sardinia is of a superior though soft kind called trigue; it will keep good only eighteen or twenty months; it is sowed in November and December, and reaped in June. In seasons of abundant harvest about 400,000 starelli are exported. The barley is inferior in quality as compared with the wheat; about 200,000 starelli is the utmost quantity exported. Indian corn, though it thrives well, is not very extensively grown. One hundred thousand starelli of beans, 200,000 of peas, and 1000 of lentils are also exported annually. Cheese is a great object of rural economy; it is made chiefly from sheep and goats' milk, and being steeped in brine, it has a salt bitter taste. A great quantity is shipped for Naples, where it is in great demand, being much used when grated to season maccaroni. Little butter is made, as the treatment of cows is not well understood, and fodder is scarce. Salt is a monopoly of the government, and a profitable branch of the royal revenue, the continental states of the house of Savoy being supplied entirely from Sardinia. Sweden and other states take many cargoes of salt from Sardinia. The salterns, both natural and artificial, are round the gulf of Cagliari, at Oristano, Terranova, and on the northern coast west of Porto Torres. The salterns are worked by convicts sentenced to the galleys, but the excavation of the mounds and the carriage of the salt is a labour forced on the adjacent villagers, for which they receive a small compensation. Tobacco is also a royal monopoly. This plant, which was introduced in 1714, while the island was subject to the House of Austria, thrives well, especially round Sassari, Alghero, and the adjacent villages. The Zenziglio, a fine sort of snuff, resembles that of Valencia in Spain. Flax is cultivated in the neighbourhood of Oristano, and most of it is used in the linen manufactories of the country. The finer sort of linen is made at Busachi. Wool is coarse, owing to the flocks being neglected, and it is manufactured |