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mentioned range there is a nearly level plain, between 45 and 50 miles wide, on which the Oder rises. This plain is only 600 or 700 feet above the sea-level; and it descends on the north along the course of the river Oder with a gentle slope, but rapidly towards the south. On the north-western edge of this plain the southern extremity of the Sudetes commences with the mountainplain of Glatz, which is surrounded by elevated ranges. It rises with a steep ascent, and extends in a north-western direction for about 70 miles, when it again descends with a similar slope. Its interior, the mountain-plain of Glatz, is between 1200 and 1300 feet above the sea; but the ranges which surround it rise to 3500 and 4300 feet. The highest summit, which lies at the south-eastern corner of the mountain-mass, is called the Altvater, and is 4281 feet above the sea. The whole region occupies a width of about 27 miles, and is called the Mountains of Glatz. Between the northern extremity of this range and the Giant Mountains is a tract the surface of which is chiefly occupied by high hills and low mountains; but its mean level above the sea does not exceed 1500 feet. It is followed in the same north-western direction by the Giant Mountains, which, for more than 30 miles, continue as a chain of equal elevation, whose upper part is nearly 4800 feet above the sea. In the middle of the chain, where the river Elbe rises, on its western declivity, is the Schneekoppe, also called Riesenkoppe, which is 5291 feet above the sea-level, and is the highest mountain in Germany except the Alps. The width of this range is about 14 miles, and the country at its north-eastern base is from 1500 to 1800 feet above the sea. The greatest part of this mountain-system is covered with wood, chiefly pine and fir, and only a small part of the valleys, which are rather narrow, is fit for cultivation. The higher part of the mountains rises above the line of trees, but does not attain the snow-line.

The Thüringerwald, which is at the south-western extremity of this part of Prussia, is a mountain-range nearly fifty miles long, but only from eight to twelve miles wide. The mean elevation may be 2000 feet above the sea, and the highest summit, the Great Beerberg, is 3258 feet. A very small part of this range lies within the boundary of Prussia. The Harz is about fifty miles distant from the Thüringerwald on the north. The western and higher portion of this mountain-system lies within the kingdom of Hanover. Only the eastern and lower portion belongs to Prussia: in this part the range attains an elevation of about 1500 feet. The Brocken, which is 3729 feet high, stands near the point where the boundary-line between Hanover and Prussia runs across the range. The greater part of the country which lies between the Thüringerwald and the Harz belongs to Prussia; its general level may be about 900 feet above the sea, but some hills rise several hundred feet higher. The soil of the valleys, most of which are wide, is generally of excellent quality.

The great plain is not a dead level, like some parts of the interior of Russia, but the surface is diversified by several moderate elevations. Two of these traverse this portion of Prussia from east to west in its whole extent. The northern elevation runs generally parallel to the Baltic, and the southern in its eastern portion parallel to the Sudetes. The northern elevation is a portion of that high ground which extends eastward from the mouth of the river Elbe, at a varying distance from the Baltic, to the sources of the river Volga, through a space of more than 1000 miles. It is remarkable for the number of lakes dispersed over its broad surface and on the upper part of its slopes, and for the quantity of erratic blocks of granite which are imbedded in the surface. On the eastern boundary of Prussia it occurs near 54° N. lat., and it runs near its southern boundary between 23° and 19° E. long., but is comprehended within the territories of Prussia. The mean height of this part of the elevated ground may be about 450 feet above the sea-level, and the lakes are more numerous than in any other part of it, and some are of considerable extent. The lake of Spirding occupies an area of more than twenty square miles, and is nearly 400 feet above the sea-level; the lake of Mauer is nearly as large, and about 410 feet above the sea. The larger lakes taken together occupy a surface of 312 square miles, and the smaller lakes are very numerous. The soil is sterile, chiefly consisting of loose sand, covered in many praces with heath, and in others with stunted pines. The portion of cultivable land is very small; that which supplies indifferent pasture for cattle and sheep is not much larger.

From this elevation the country slopes to the shores of the Baltic with an undulating surface, which is seldom varied by a hill. The soil improves as we advance northward, and as we approach the shores of the Frisches Haff and the banks of the rivers Pregel and Niemen it contains extensive tracts of great fertility. The most productive parts occur along the banks of the Niemen and Vistula, where the low river-bottoms are of great extent, and are protected against the inundations by embankments. The embankments were erected along the Vistula, more than six hundred years ago, by the Teutonic knights: they are above 150 miles long. The country which is thus secured from inundations contains an area of nearly 750 square miles, and is by far the most fertile tract in the Prussian monarchy.

The elevation is interrupted by the wide valley of the Vistula, and on the west side of the river it does not rise opposite to the termination of the eastern portion, but much farther to the north. It begins about twenty-five miles south-west of Danzig, with a rather steep ascent, and attains its greatest elevation in the Thurmberg near Schönberg, which is nearly 1070 feet above the sea, and is the highest hill between the Harz and the Ural mountains. From this place it extends in a south-western direction towards Behrendt, and thence to Märkisch Friedland, which is on the boundary-line between Prussia Proper and Pomerania. So far it resembles in all its features a mountain-system of a diminutive size. It continues with a less elevation and more extended slopes along the boundary-line between the provinces of Pomerania and Brandenburg, and terminates in abrupt hills not far from the banks of the Oder opposite Schwedt and Oderberg. The soil of this elevation is much better in this part than it is farther east, but it is only of very moderate fertility. To the southeast of the higher portion of the elevation extends the greatest waste in the Prussian monarchy, called the Tuchler Heide (Heath of Tuchel), which is fifty miles in length and from twenty to twenty-five in width. The soil is sandy, and, with the exception of shrubs and stunted pines, it produces scarcely anything which is useful to man. The spots of cultivable ground are few and of small extent. Towards the south, where it approaches the river Netze, an affluent of the Warta, the soil improves, and it is still better between the two last-mentioned rivers, but even here the fertility is not great. Between the Warta, where that river runs north, and the Vistula, there is a large tract of country which yields abundant crops of wheat and other grain. The tract which extends along the lower course of the Warta to the banks of the river Oder, is much less fertile. On the northern side of the elevation the country is of moderate fertility, but it improves as we approach the shores of the Baltic. A few miles from the sea there is a tract several miles wide, which may be called fertile, but the shores consist of sand-hills which extend two or three miles inland, and occupy the whole coast from the eastern mouth of the Oder to the fertile delta of the Vistula near Danzig.

The Western portion of the elevation begins on the west of the Oder, between Schwedt and Oderberg, and runs west-north-west until it enters the duchy of Mecklenburg, through which it extends to Holstein and the banks of the Elbe. Its mean height is here probably less than 300 feet above the sea-level, and the surface is rather uneven, several hills rising from 100 to 200 feet above it. The soil of that part which is within Prussia is of moderate fertility; but along its northern declivity, and as far as the shores of the Baltic, including the island of Rügen, it consists of very good land, which yields large crops of grain.

The Southern elevation of the Prussian plain is connected at its eastern extremity with the mountains of Sandomir in Poland [POLAND], and with those surrounding the mining town of Olkusz, north-east of Cracow. From this point it runs in a west-north-west direction along the eastern boundary-line of the province of Silesia, where it rises to about 1000 feet above the sea-level north of the town of Breslau. In this part it is called the Heights of Trebnitz. The elevation is interrupted by the valley of the Oder between Leubus and Great Glogau, and farther on by the Bober, Neisse, and Spree; but it appears south of Berlin, where it is called the Fleming, and is 400 feet above the sea, or 300 feet above the site of the Prussian capital. It terminates not far from the banks of the Elbe, between Magdeburg and Burg; but a continuation of it appears on the western

side of the Elbe, and after leaving the Prussian dominions, continues between the Elbe and the Weser to the vicinity of the North Sea between the mouths of these two rivers. In these parts it is very wide, and comprehends the Heath of Lüneburg, which belongs to the kingdom of Hanover. The country which lies between the two elevations, west of the meridian of 19°, is not distinguished by fertility, except in some of the river bottoms. Berlin lies in a sandy desert, which contains only small isolated tracts of fertile ground; and this sterile country, in some parts overgrown with fine forests, extends northward to the boundary-line of Mecklenburg, and southward to the Fleming. To the east and west of this waste, on both sides of the river Oder, and towards the banks of the Elbe, the country is much better, but still not very fertile.

The country to the south of the southern elevation is more favoured by nature than the other parts of the Prussian monarchy. Completely sterile tracts are rare, and of small extent, with the exception of one which forms the southern district of Silesia, and is contiguous to the boundary-line of the Austrian dominions and of Poland. The remainder of Silesia is fertile, especially the plain, which extends on the left bank of the Oder from Oppeln to Liegnitz. The same observation applies to the province of Saxony, as far as it lies south of the southern elevation; the country about the town of Magdeburg is noted for its fertility, and is considered the granary of Berlin.

Climate. Numerous meteorological observations have been made in all parts of the Prussian monarchy, and their results have been compared. The difference of temperature in the provinces is considerable. Berghaus has divided Prussia, as to climate, into three sections, the western, central, and eastern divisions. The first is formed by Rhenish Prussia, and the last by Prussia Proper; the remainder of the monarchy constitutes the central division. He gives the following table:

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and west. From the east it receives the Sieg, on which timber is floated, and which is also navigable for four or five miles from its mouth; the Wipper, farther north, which is only navigable for a short distance from its mouth; and the Ruhr and the Lippe, both of which are navigable for 30 or 40 miles from their junction with the Rhine. On the left the Moselle falls into the Rhine, and is navigable in the whole of its course through the Prussian dominions, an extent of more than 150 miles.

In the eastern provinces of Prussia four large rivers, the Elbe, Oder, Vistula, and the Niemen, traverse the elevations which run through them from east to west. Between the two elevations however the affluents of these rivers run east and west, and as many of them are navigable for river boats, they facilitate the intercourse between the countries on their banks. The navigable affluents of the Elbe, from the west, are the Saale, which begins to be navigable where it enters Prussia, the Unstrut, and the Elster; and from the east, the Havel, which is joined by the Spree: the course of the Havel is nearly 250 miles, measured along the windings, and it is navigable for about two-thirds of that distance. The navigable affluents of the Oder from the east are the Klodnitz, in southern Silesia; the Bartsch, which is navigable from Militch downwards; the Warta, which is navigable before it leaves Poland and enters Prussia, with its navigable | tributary the Netze; and from the west, the Bober, the Neisse, and the Finow. The lake into which the Oder discharges its waters before it enters the Baltic, receives the two navigable rivers, the Ucker and the Peene; by the latter sea vessels of moderate size can ascend to the town of Demmin. The Vistula receives from the west the Brahe, which becomes navigable at the town of Bromberg. Between the Oder and the Vistula is the Persante, which runs more than 100 miles, and is navigable more than 20 miles from its mouth in the Baltic. The Elbing river rises in the lake of Drausen, and though its course is not long, it is navigable, and of great importance to the town of Elbing: it falls into the Frisches Haff. Farther east the same lake receives the Passarge, which is navigable for small sea vessels to the town of Braunsberg, four miles from its mouth. Pregel, which also falls into the Frisches Haff, is navigable as far as Insterburg for large river vessels, and to the town of Königsberg for vessels of 300 tons burden. A river, which is united with the Pregel by a canal, runs to the Kurisches Haff; it is navigable for large river boats, and called the Deime. The Niemen or Memel is navigable in 49° 63° 35° 33° 64° the whole of its course through Prussia; it receives from the north the river Yura, which about ten miles from its 65° mouth is navigable for small river boats; and from the south the Scheschuppe, which is navigable about 25 miles upwards. 62 The last river which requires mention is the Dange, which comes from Russia, and enters the Kurisches Haff at its most northern extremity where it forms a part of the harbour of the town of Memel. Vessels of more than 500 tons burden can enter the river and unload in the middle of the town.

Mean Temperature of Fahrenheit.

Of the Year.

Of the Summer.

Of the Winter.

Coldest Month.

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48°

64° 33° 29°

Eastern

division 54° 30'

40 43° 61° 26° 24°

Warmest Month.

From this table it is evident that the difference of the mean temperature in winter in the western and eastern divisions amounts to nine degrees, but in summer it does not exceed two degrees and a half. If we compare the climate of these divisions with that of London, we find that the mean annual temperature of London is about one degree greater than that of the western division, and exceeds by nearly eight degrees that of the eastern. But as the mean temperature of the summer in London is only 61.2°, the western and central divisions of Prussia experience at that season a greater degree of heat than the British metropolis. The winter however in London is much milder, as the average temperature of this season is 39.30. Berghaus observes, that the mean annual quantity of rain in the western division amounts to twenty inches, and only to fifteen inches in the eastern division, but it is nearly impossible to determine this point, as the latter division annually experiences very heavy falls of snow, which it is nearly impossible to estimate, on account of the drift-storms, which accumulate the snow in some places to a great depth, whilst other places, which are exposed to their whole force, are quite bare. The prevailing winds in Prussia, as all over the west of Europe, blow from the west, and frequently with great force.

Rivers.-In Rhenish Prussia is the Rhine, which traverses this division of the monarchy from south to north, and is navigable for large vessels as far as it flows through the Prussian dominions. As far as Cologne (Köln) it may be ascended by sea vessels of moderate size. Its course above Bonn is rapid, and in some places eddies occur, but they are not dangerous. Several rivers join the Rhine from the east

The

Natural Productions.- Prussia does not possess a great variety of natural productions, but it has all those the cultivation of which has been gradually, introduced into central Europe, and the most indispensable of them in sufficient abundance for its own consumption, and for the obtaining of foreign luxuries and comforts. Of domestic animals, according to the latest accounts that we have seen, and which appear to have been published about six years ago, there are-horses 1,500,000, the breed of which has been much improved of late years, especially in the eastern provinces, by numerous studs; horned cattle 513,180; sheep, at least 12,650,000 in round numbers, viz. 2,600,000 Merinos, 5,450,000 of an improved breed, and 4,600,000 not improved; goats, 200,000, are bred only in the mountainous parts of Silesia, Saxony, and Westphalia; swine, 2,000,000, are chiefly bred in Pomerania, Saxony, the provinces of the Rhine, and above all in Westphalia, the hams of which country have long been celebrated. There are likewise asses, chiefly in Westphalia, and mules. Of wild four footed animals there are: 1, fit for food-stags, fallow-deer wild boars, hares, and rabbits. The great northern hare is sometimes met with. 2, Beasts of prey and fur-bearing animals-wolves, foxes in abundance, bears rarely, lynxes, beavers, badgers, pole-cats, otters, weasels, and martens; the ermine is very rare. Domestic poultry of all kinds abounds; and of wild-fowl, besides what we call game, as pheasants and partridges, there are such

immense numbers of wild geese as frequently to do great injury to the farmers. Smoked geese are an important article of exportation from Pomerania. Of birds of prey, there are the eagle, the sparrow-hawk, the kite, and some others. Fish of various kinds are extremely abundant, as well in the numerous rivers as on the long line of coast on the Baltic. In all the provinces where there are heaths, buckwheat, and lime-trees, great quantities of bees are bred, in all 600,000 hives. The breeding of silkworms has been greatly increased within the last twenty years, and promises to become very important.

Agriculture.-Agriculture is the chief source of the national wealth, and is carried on with great care in most of the provinces. Wheat, rye, oats, and barley are raised both for home consumption and exportation; there are likewise peas, beans, vetches, millet, maize, rapeseed, and linseed. Potatoes are cultivated in all the provinces. Flax, hemp, hops, tobacco, succory, beet-root, and garden vegetables of all kinds are raised; but of the first three articles not enough for home consumption. Fruit might be more extensively cultivated than it is. Considerable pains are taken with it in Pomerania; but the most productive provinces are Saxony and Rhenish Prussia. The cultivation of the vine has been greatly extended since the peace of 1815. The most and best wine is made in Rhenish Prussia; of 55,000 acres of vineyards, 44,000 are in that province. On the whole Prussia has abundance of timber the principal forests are in Prussia proper and Silesia; but some provinces, for instance part of Saxony, have not sufficient. The mineral products are salt from salt-springs, of excellent quality and in great abundance, amber, and coals in large quantities; alum, vitriol, saltpetre, alabaster, basalt, granite, porphyry, marble, slate, freestone, chalk, lime, porcelain-clay, pipe-clay, &c. The metallic products are silver, copper, lead, iron, zinc, cobalt, arsenic, and calamine. The precious stones are the onyx, agate, jasper, and cornelian.

Manufactures.-The principal manufactures are:-linen in all the provinces, but chiefly in Silesia; woollen cloths and cotton goods, especially in the province of the Rhine, at Elberfeld, Barmen, Crefeld, &c.; silk, leather, iron and copper ware, cutlery, articles of gold and silver, succory, paper, china, glass, earthenware, snuff and tobacco, sugar (the manufacture of beet-root sugar is making great progress), gunpowder, &c,; the breweries and brandy distilleries are very considerable.

and Aix-la-Chapelle. The great fairs are those of Breslau, Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and Magdeburg.

Religion. There is, properly speaking, no state religion That of the royal family and of the majority of the people is Calvinism; but Christians of all denominations are equally admissible to all public employments. The year 1817, which was the three hundredth anniversary of the Reformation, was remarkable for the union of the Calvinists and Lutherans in Prussia, and in some other parts of Germany, into one religious body, under the name of Evangelical Christians. These amount in Prussia to about 8,000,000, the Roman Catholics to about 5,000,000, the Mennonites and Moravians to about 15,000: there are likewise French Protestants, the descendants of the refugees; and nearly 200,000 Jews.

Education.-The Prussian government pays great attention to the diffusion of useful knowledge, and manifests equal zeal in encouraging the lowest as well as the superior institutions. For the education of the people, there are in all the towns elementary schools, Sunday and infant schools, schools for mechanics, &c.; in fact, so much is done in this respect, that many persons complain of the too great extent and variety of things taught in these institutions. In 1835 there were 21,790 elementary schools, in which about 2,000,000 of children of both sexes were instructed: for the higher branches of education, there were, in 1832, 124 gymnasia, in which 24,461 scholars were educated. There are universities at Berlin, Bonn, Breslau, Greifswald, Halle, and Königsberg, to the support of which the government applies large sums. As to education generally in Prussia, see SCHOOL. The literary and learned societies are very numerous.

Revenue. In the year 1835 the revenue amounted to nearly 8,000,000l. sterling, and has not much varied since that time. The expenditure for the same year was estimated at an equal sum, of which about 1,200,000l. was appropriated to pay the interest of the public debt, and to the gradual redemption of it, and above 3,000,000l. to the war department. The debt amounted, on the 1st January, 1835, to about 27,000,0007. sterling, bearing interest at 4 per cent.

Army. All subjects of the Prussian monarchy are bound to military service, which they perform successively in the standing army, the landwehr (militia) of the first and second ban, and in the landsturm (which answers to the French levée en masse). All men able to bear arms from twenty to twenty-five years of age belong to the standing army; they serve three years, and are then discharged for two years, during which they are liable to be called out as the reserve All those who have served in the standing army belong to the landwehr of the first ban, from the age of twenty-six to thirty-two, both inclusive. In time of war this ban is on the same footing as the standing army, and equally liable to serve both at home and abroad. It is called out every year to exercise, in one year for a fortnight, in the next for a month, and is equipped and clothed while it serves. The second ban, which is called out only in time of war, and is then chiefly employed in reinforcing the garrisons, includes all men capable of bearing arms till the age of thirty-nine. All older men fit for service belong to the landsturm. The army consists of eight corps, besides the guards, amounting to—

War establishmeut.
Officers.

Commerce. The abundance of products of various kinds, and the active industry of the people, give occasion to an extensive commerce, which is highly favoured by the advantageous position of the country in the centre of Europe, the great extent of coast on the Baltic, and by the great rivers (the Rhine, the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula) which traverse the country and are connected by navigable tributary streams and numerous canals. The commerce of Prussia extends to almost all the states of Europe, to America, and even to China; but its chief commerce is with Austria and the other states of Germany, with England, Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands. The principal articles of export are the natural productions and the most important of the manufactures enumerated under the two preceding heads. The chief articles imported are:-raw and refined sugar, coffee, tea, spices, cotton, silk, tobacco, hops, tin, saltpetre, dye-stuff, wine, glass, and various manufactures, chiefly printed calicoes, silks, and fine hardware. It is not easy to ascertain the annual value of the exports and imports previously to 1831. That of the imports, says Dieterici, cannot be less than from ten to twelve millions sterling. The exports seem to have exceeded that sum. celebrated Prussian or German commercial league commenced, and has been since been gradually joined by almost all the German states. The effect of this league (or, as it is called in German, Zollverein, i.e. customs union) is not yet fully developed. The object is to establish an entire freedom of trade among the German states, and to subject foreign trade to such restrictions only as the protection of national manufactures or the financial circumstances of the The 6400 invalids are not included. Thus Prussia is able state may render necessary. The result in the years 1831-in time of war to have on foot an army of 8787 officers and 1836 has been published, from official sources, by Dr. Dieterici, in a very elaborate work, in 1838. The harbours are-Memel, Pillau, Neufahrwasser near Danzig, Stolpermünde, Rügenwalde, Kammin, Schweinemünde, Peenemünde, Greifswald, Stralsund, and Barth. The most considerable commercial towns are:-Berlin, Königsberg, Danzig, Breslau, Stettin, Magdeburg, Cologne, Elberfeld,

In 1831 the

Infantry of the line.
Cavalry of the line.
Artillery.

3,000

Men. 128,412

Peace establishment.

66,536

932

21,600

18,000

899

20,970

15,570

Engineers and pioneers 219
Garrison troops.

4,050

1,800

161

5,400

5,400

Total

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The whole Prussian monarchy is divided into eight provinces, and these into twenty-five governments.

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ments, the number of inhabitants in a German geographical square mile (equal to about twenty-one English square The following table shows the extent of the whole Prus- miles), the principal towns, and the population, according sian monarchy, the population of the provinces and govern- to the return of 1837, the latest published:View of the Area and the Population of the Prussian Monarchy at the end of 1837.

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