. the partridge. Ground-colour of the whole plumage earthbrown, just as dark on the body as on the back; this colour is varied by dusky white spots in the following manner:the feathers upon the neck, throat, breast, interscapulars, and sides of the body have a row of white stripes down the middle of each web, bordering a stripe of rufous which occupies the middle of each feather; these spots (which are most distinct and defined on the interscapulars and sides of the body) are bordered above by a line of obscure black; the spots become indistinct and run into each other on the breast so as to form stripes. The chin and part of the throat is dirty white, each feather being nearly black in the middle. On the fore part of the body, immediately beneath the breast, is a large patch of pale fulvous or buff-yellow. All the rest of the plumage is dark brown, without any other variation than very minute and scarcely perceptible freckles of a paler colour; the quill and tail feathers are without any bands or spots, but there are a few white dots on the wing-covers, and obsolete undulations on the flanks; bill, orbits, and legs light, probably red in the live bird; tail very broad and rounded. Total length about ten inches. (Sw., Birds of West Africa, in ‘Nat. Lib.') [PERDICIDE, vol. xvii., p. 443.) PTILO'PHYRUS, Mr. Swainson's name for the genus Lophyrus [COLUMBIDE, vol. vii., p. 370], a change which he proposes because Lophyrus was preoccupied to designate a genus of insects. PTI'LORIS, Mr. Swainson's name for a genus of birds which he arranges under the Paradisiadæ, or Birds of Paradise. Generic Character.-Bill greatly curved. Nostrils basal, plumed; the aperture linear. Wings rounded. Tail short, even. Tarsi short. Toes as in Meliphaga; hallux very strong, equal to the tarsus and to the middle toe. Soles flat and broad. (Sw.) Example, Ptiloris Paradiseus (Rifle Bird). PTILO'STOMUS, Mr. Swainson's name for a genus of pirds which he places under the subfamily Glaucopine (Wattle-Crows) of the family Corvida. Generic Character.-Bill shorter than the head, much compressed, the culmen considerably arched, and curved from the base. Rictus bristled. Wings moderate, slightly rounded; the third, fourth, and fifth quills longest. Tail long, cuneated; the feathers lanceolate. Feet very strong and robust. Tarsus lengthened, longer than the middle toe and claw; lateral toes short, and of equal length. (Sw.) Geographical Distribution of the Genus.-Africa. Example, Ptilostomus Senegalensis (Sw.), Senegal Piapec. Description.-Size smaller and general form more slender than in the European magpie. Plumage of body above and below sooty black, feathers very soft and silky, and with a soft gloss upon them. On the tertials, and some of the secondaries, close transverse bands of darkly shaded lines, similar to those on the tail-feathers of Lamprotornis longicauda, &c. Primary quills and tail light sepia-brown, the former being almost white on their under surface, when held in some directions of light. Tail-feathers much narrowed towards their tips, and their shafts particularly strong. Total length 17 inches. (Sw.) Habits, &c.—Mr. Swainson remarks, that from the circumstance of Le Vaillant having found this species to be migratory in South Africa (where it is seen either singly or in small flocks), there can be no doubt that it quits Senegal at certain seasons along with the Grakles, and returns to West Africa to breed. Mr. Swainson infers the latter circumstance from having seen a young specimen from Senegal, before it had quite gained its full wing-feathers. He also remarks that the sharpness and curvature of its claws shows that the bird, although possessed of an ambulating foot, is yet more accustomed to perch upon trees than to walk upon the ground. (Birds of West Africa.) PIILO'TIS. [MELIPHAGIDÆ, vol. xv., p. 82.] Subgeneric character.-Bill short. Lateral toes almost equal. Tail slightly rounded, sometimes nearly even. (Sw.) PTILOTU'RUS. [MELIPHAGIDA, vol. xv., p. 82.] I. PTOLEMÆUS (IIroλeμãtos), surnamed SOTER, or preserver,' the founder of the dynasty of Greek kings in Egypt, frequently called the Lagida, was one of the ablest of the generals of Alexander the Great. He is commonly called the son of Lagus, but, according to the Macedonians, he was the son of Philip and grandson of Amyntas, but was called the son of Lagus, because nis motner was given for wife to Lagus by Philip, though she was then with child. (Paus., i. 6, § 2.) In the division of the provinces on the death of Alexander, B.C. 323, Egypt was assigned to Ptolemy, who soon took measures to erect it into an independent kingdom. He put to death Cleomenes, who had been appointed satrap of Egypt by Alexander, chiefly because he was well disposed to Perdiccas (Paus., i. 6, § 3), and obtained by his death an immense sum of money, which Cleomenes had collected during his administration. With this money, which amounted, according to Diodorus (xviii. 14), to 8000 talents, he collected a large army. In the first or second year of his rule he took the city of Cyrene and added the Cyrenaica to his dominions. He also obtained possession of the dead body of Alexander, which it had been resolved in the council at Babylon to transport to Ægæ in Macedonia. It was first carried to Memphis, and afterwards to Alexandria. In the year B.C. 321 Perdiccas invaded Egypt; but he lost 2000 men in attempting to cross the Nile, and was subsequently murdered in his tent by his own troops. [PER DICCAS.] A few years afterwards Ptolemy had to encounter a more formidable rival in Antigonus, who was rapidly increasing in power; and in B.C. 316 he entered into an alliance with Seleucus, Cassander, and Lysimachus, to resist the ambitious projects of Antigonus. In the long war which followed, and of which an account is given in the article ANTIGONUS, Ptolemy took an active part. It was continued till B.C. 312, when a general treaty was made, by which Ptolemy obtained possession of Egypt and the adjacent districts. Ptolemy however was the first to break this treaty in the following year; and the war was again renewed, and carried on with various success, till the defeat and death of Antigonus, at the battle of Ipsus, B.C. 301, secured to Ptolemy the undisturbed possession of Egypt. From this time to his death, Ptolemy devoted all his energies to develop the resources and promote the prosperity of his kingdom. Under his wise government and that of his successor, Alexandria became, as its great founder had anticipated, the first commercial city in the world, and the place from which Europe was supplied with the rich merchandise of the East. As his subjects consisted of two distinct nations, the Egyptians and Greeks, it was the policy of Ptolemy and his successors to amalgamate these races as much as possible. Ptolemy, being a Greek, introduced Greek habits and customs and also the Greek religion into Egypt; but, like his great master Alexander, he carefully avoided offending the prejudices of his new subjects, and adopted to a certain extent the Egyptian forms of worship. He and his successors conciliated the favour of their subjects, by the respect which they paid to the antient Egyptian priesthood, and also by contributing largely to the restoration of the antient monuments of the country. (British Museum,' Egyptian Antiquities, vol. i., p. 35, Lond. 1832.) He also introduced the most complete religious toleration among all his subjects. The troubled state of Palestine and the growing commerce of Alexandria induced many Jews to settle in his dominions; and the same toleration was granted to the Jewish synagogue as to the temples of Isis and Jupiter. Ptolemy seems to have been desirous of uniting as much as possible the Egyptian and Greek religions; and his removal of the statue of Serapis from Pontus to Alexandria, which is mentioned by several antient writers (Tacit., Hist., iv. 84, and commentators), and which was accompanied with great solemnity, seems to have been accomplished in order to establish the worship of a deity which might prove acceptable to both nations. Ptolemy gave great encouragement to learning and science. He wrote himself a history of the wars of Alexander, which appears to have been a work of considerable merit, and which supplied Arrian, in conjunction with the narrative of Aristobulus, with the materials for his history. [ARRIAN, p. 395.] He invited many scholars and philosophers from Greece, of whom the most celebrated was Demetrius Phalereus [DEMETRIUS], who was received by him with the greatest distinction. He also invited Theophrastus (Diog. Laert., ii. 37), and received Stilpo (Diog. Laert., ii. 115), who had been banished from Athens for his religious opinions. In fact, Ptolemy extended his patronage to all persons of learning, independent of their religious and philosophical opinions. He laid the foundations of that school of learning for which Alexandria became afterwards so celebrated; and he probably commenced making collections for the public library which was regu-vigation of the Antients, &c., vol. i., p. 42.) Theocritus larly established by his son." Ptolemy Soter was first married to Eurydice, the daughter of Antipater, by whom he had children; but he left his dominions to a younger son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, whom he had by Berenice (Paus., i. 6, § 8; Justin, xvi. 2; Plin., Hist. Nat., xxxvii. 32). [BERENICE.] His eldest son, Ptolemy Ceraunus, murdered Seleucus, B.C. 280, and obtained possession of the kingdom of Macedonia. He only reigned however for about a year, and fell in battle with the Gauls. (Paus., i. 16, § 2; x. 19, § 4; Strabo, xiii., p. 623; Justin, xxiv. 5.) Ptolemy Soter assumed the title of king, B.C. 306 (Diod., IX. 53; Plutarch, Demetr., c. 18); and died at the age of 84 (Lucian, Macrob., c. 12), B.C. 283, forty years after the death of Alexander. All the antient writers agree in representing Ptolemy as a prince of the greatest wisdom, prudence, and generosity; and there is a saying of his reported by Elian (Var. Hist., xiii. 12), worthy of Alexander, that it was better to make rich than to be rich.' Coin of Ptolemy and Berenice. British Museum. Actual Size. Gold. 6 The two heads to the right are Ptolemy Soter and his wife Berenice. The two heads to the left are Ptolemy Philadelphus and his sister and wife Arsinoe. The words OEON AAEAPON, the fraternal deities' occur in the Adule Inscription, and apply to Ptolemy Philadelphus and Arsinoe. [ADULE.] (Adoniazusa) describes in glowing colours the wealth and power of his patron; and his account is confirmed by the less suspicious testimony of Appian, who was himself a native of Alexandria. The latter writer informs us (Præfatio Histor., c. 10) that under the Ptolemies the army consisted of 200,000 foot soldiers, 40,000 horse, 300 elephants, and 2000 war-chariots, and the fleet of 2000 smaller vessels, 1500 triremes, and 800 ships magnificently adorned and equipped for royal use. The money in the treasury amounted to 740,000 Egyptian talents at the death of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who, according to Appian, amassed greater treasure and expended more upon public works than any of his successors. Athenæus also bears testimony (ii., p. 203) to the great power of Philadelphus, and states among other things that he surpassed all other kings in the number of his ships. The power and influence of the Egyptian kingdom under the three first Ptolemies is also attested by Polybius (v. 34), who says that they were masters of Cole-Syria and Cyprus, and extended their influence over the neighbouring countries as far as Thrace and Macedonia. (Clinton's Fast. Hellen., iii., p. 383.) The political events of the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus may be comprised in a few words. He put to death, at the commencement of his reign, two of his brothers, one of whom had endeavoured to excite the Cyprians to revolt. He was also engaged in war with Magas, the son of Berenice by a former husband, who had been appointed governor of Cyrene. Magas, who was married to Apama, the daughter of Antiochus and grand-daughter of Seleucus, prevailed upon his father-in-law to break the treaty which had been made between Seleucus and Ptolemy. Ptolemy however, by assuming the defensive, prevented Antiochus from invading his dominions (Paus., i. 7, § 3), and finally con cluded a peace with his successor Antiochus II., by which the latter agreed to repudiate his wife Laodice, and to marry Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy. [ANTIOCHUS II.] In B.C. 274 Ptolemy sent an embassy to Rome and formed an alliance with the republic. (Liv., Epit., 14; Eutrop., ii. 15.) We also read of a Roman embassy to Egypt. (Justin, xvii. 2.) Ptolemy sent a naval force to the assistance of the Athenians against Antigonus and the Macedonians (Paus., 1, 7, § 3); and the Athenians in compliment to him called one of their tribes Ptolemais. (Paus., i. 6, § 8; i. 5, § 5.) Ptolemy also founded a gymnasium at Athens, not far from the market-place, which was called after his name, and which contained a bronze statue of him. (Paus., i. 17, $ 2.) [ATHENS, p. 11.] II. PTOLEMÆUS, surnamed PHILADELPHUS, or the brother-loving, succeeded his father, B.C. 283, but was associated with him in the government two years previously. He followed the example of his father in the encouragement of learning; and he maintained with great liberality many distinguished philosophers and poets, of whom the most celebrated were Theocritus, Lycophron, and Callimachus. He established the public library, which was probably commenced by his father, and also founded a museum (μovočiov) for the promotion of learning and the support of learned men. Some modern writers attribute the foundation of this museum to Ptolemy Soter, but Athenæus (v., p. 203) distinctly ascribes it to Philadelphus. (Clinton, Fasti Hell., iii., p. 380.) We learn from Strabo (xvii, p. 794) that the museum formed part of the palace, and that it contained cloisters or porticos (Epinarov), a public theatre or lecture-room (dpa), and a large hall (oikov péyav), where the learned men who belonged to it dined together. The museum was supported by a common fund, supplied apparently from the public treasury; and the whole institution was under the superintendence of a priest, who was appointed by the king, and, after Egypt formed a province of the Roman empire, by the Cæsar. Attached to the museum there were botanical and zoologiIII. PTOLEMÆUS, surnamed EUE'RGETES, or the cal gardens. (Philostr., Apollon., vi. 24; Athen., xiv., p. 654.) The institution was enlarged by the emperor Clau-benefactor,' succeeded his father B.C. 247. He was endius. (Suet., Claud., c. 42, with Casaubon's 'Note.') Ptolemy Philadelphus showed the same favour to the Jews as his father had done; and it was under his auspices that the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek. [SEPTUAGINT.] Josephus (Antiq., xii., 2, § 12) has given us an account of the entertainment at which Ptolemy received the translators; and which is interesting, as it affords us some idea of the literary parties which the king appears to have frequently given. The king sat at the head of the table, and the guests on each side. The usual priests, heralds, &c. were sent away, and grace was said by one of the translators at the command of the king. This grace or prayer was received with loud applause by the whole company. After supper the king began to philosophise, and asked every one of his guests a philosophical question. The treasures and resources of Philadelphus were very great. Much of the wealth which he possessed was, without doubt, owing to his possessing the trade with India and other parts of Eastern Asia. He also used every effort to extend the trade of Alexandria; he obtained possession of the maritime parts of Arabia and of the eastern coast of Africa, and his admiral Timosthenes appears to have gone as far south as Madagascar. (Vincent's Commerce and Na Ptolemy Philadelphus died, B.C. 247, after reigning two years with his father and thirty-six alone. He was married twice; to Arsinoe, the daughter of Lysimachus, and also to Arsinoe, his own sister. [ARSINOE.] Pausanias remarks (i. 7, § 1) upon his marriage with the latter, that in doing so he violated the laws of the Macedonians, but not of the Egyptians. By his sister he had no children, but by the daughter of Lysimachus he had three, Berenice, Ptolemy surnamed Euergetes, and Lysimachus. (Schol. Theocr., xvii. 128, quoted by Clinton.) gaged in war at the commencement of his reign with Seleucus Callinicus, to revenge the death of his sister Berenice. [BERENICE II.] Great success attended his arms; he obtained possession of many of the provinces belonging to the Seleucidæ, and would probably have overthrown their empire, if he had not been obliged to return to Egypt in consequence of some civil commotions. (Justin, xxvii. 1.) Seleucus tried to strengthen his power by entering into an alliance with his brother Antigonus Gonatas; but they quickly became jealous of each other, and Ptolemy availed himself of their dissensions to extend his kingdom. We possess hardly any particulars respecting the life and character of Ptolemy Euergetes. If inferior to his predecessors, he was superior to these that reigned after him; Strabo says (p. 796) that the kings of Egypt after the third Ptolemy governed worse than their predecessors. He fol lowed his father's example in giving every encouragement to trade and commerce. It appears from an inscription, which was found at Adule by Cosmas [ADULE], that Ptolemy had conquered Abyssinia, and that he maintained a powerful fleet in the Red Sea. A translation of this inscription, with many valuable remarks, is given in Dr. Vincent's Commerce and Navigation of the Antients in the Indian Ocean,' vol ., p. 533, &c. If we can trust to this inscription, Ptolemy Euergetes must in his wars with Seleucus have subdued the greater part of Asia. It states that he had received from his father the kingdom of Egypt, Africa, Syria, Phoenicia, Cyprus, Lycia, Caria, and the Cyclades, and that he invaded Asia with his land and sea forces, and with elephants from the country of the Troglodytes and Ethiopians. The inscription then states that with these forces he reduced all the country on this side the Euphrates, as well as Cilicia, the Hellespont, Thrace, and all the forces in these provinces; and that he afterwards crossed the Euphrates, and entered Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Susiana, Persis, Media, and the whole country as far as Bactria, and brought the whole under his dominion. During the reign of Euergetes, Cleomenes, king of Sparta, took refuge in Egypt, and was received by him with great distinction. (Plutarch, Cleom., c. 32; Paus., ii. 9, § 3; Justin, xxviii. 4.) Ptolemy Euergetes married Berenice, the daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene. [BERENICE III.] By her he had three children, Magas, Ptolemy Philopator, and Arsinoe. He was murdered by his own son Philopator, B.C. 222. reduced, in B.C. 198, all the cities in Cole-Syria. He also conquered Scopas, who had in the preceding year brought 6000 auxiliaries to Ptolemy. (Liv., xxxiii. 19.) But as Antiochus was anxious to prosecute his conquest in Asia Minor. he proposed a treaty of marriage between his daughter and Ptolemy, to be consummated when both came of age, by which Cole-Syria and Palestine were to be given with the princess as a dewry. (Polyb., xxviii. 17; Joseph., Ant., xii. 4, § 1.) This marriage was afterwards celebrated in the year B.C. 192 or 193, when Ptolemy was about seventeen years of age. Ptolemy died B.C. 181, and is said to have been poisoned. (Hieron., Ad Dan., c. 11.) He left three children, P. Philometor, P. Physcon, and Cleopatra, who was successively married to her two brothers. (Joseph., Antiq., xii. 4, § 11; Justin, xxxviii. 8.) IV. PTOLEMÆUS, surnamed PHILO'PATOR, or 'father-loving,' succeeded Euergetes, B.C. 222. He was distinguished by his profligacy and cruelty, and is said to have been ironically called Philopator on account of having murdered his father. (Justin, xxix. 1.) His chief minister was Sosibius, at whose instigation he put to death his mother Berenice, his unele Lysimachus, his brother Magas, his wife and sister Arsinoe, who is called Eurydice by Justin (xxx. 1), and Cleomenes the Spartan king. (Polyb., v. 34, 35; xv. 25; Plutarch, Cleom., 33, 34, &c.) Philopator however appears to have been an able general. In B.C. 219 the province of Cale-Syria, which had been conquered by his father, was attacked by Antiochus the Great, who at first obtained possession of the greater part of it through the treachery of Theodotus, the Egyptian governor. In the following year however the forces of Ptolemy were more successful. Antiochus was defeated in a great battle fought at Raphia, near Gaza, B.C. 217; and Cole-Syria and Palestine were ceded to Ptolemy by a treaty made in the same year. (Polyb., iv. 37; y. 79-87.) [ANTIOCHUS III.] Philopator died B.C 205, after a reign of seventeen years. (Clinton.) Coin of Ptolemæus Philopater. V. PTOLEMÆUS, surnamed EPIPHANES, or 'illustrious, the son of P. Philopator and Arsinoe, was only five years old at the death of his father. (Justin, xxx. 2.) Antiochus the Great thought it a favourable opportunity not only to recover Cole-Syria, but also to obtain the sovereignty of Egypt, and accordingly united with Philip, king of Macedon, to divide the Egyptian dominions between them. (Polyb., iii. 2; Liv., xxxi. 14.) The guardians of the young king took the precaution of placing him under the protection of the Romans, which the latter willingly undertook, as they were anxious to obtain a pretext for attacking Philip and Antiochus. (Justin, xxx. 2, 3.) Livy also mentions (xxxi. 9) an Egyptian embassy to Rome in B.C. 200. When the Romans were engaged in their war with Philip, Antiochus attacked the dominions of Ptolemy, and Coin of Ptolemæus Epiphanes. British Museum. Actual Size. Gold, VI. PTOLEMÆUS, surnamed PHILOMETOR, or 'mother-loving,' was a child when his father died; but the government was conducted by his mother Cleopatra. During the life-time of Cleopatra, the kingdom of Egypt enjoyed repose; but on her death, her brother Antiochus Epiphanes claimed Cole-Syria and Palestine, which had been given to Ptolemy Epiphanes as his wife's dower. In B.C. 171 Antiochus invaded Egypt and defeated the army of Philometor at Pelusium; and in the following year he took most of the principal towns in Egypt, with the exception of Alexandria, and obtained possession of the person of Philometor. After the capture of Philometor, the Alexandrines raised his brother to the throne, who took the name of Euergetes II., but is more commonly known by that of Physcon. In B.C. 169 Antiochus invaded Egypt for the third time, under pretence of restoring the kingdom to Philometor. He laid siege to Alexandria, and would probably have obtained possession of the city, had not ambassadors come from Rome, who commanded him to abandon the attempt. Afraid of provoking a war with the Romans, he retired from Egypt, leaving Philometor nominal king of the whole country with the exception of Alexandria. He appears 10 have hoped that the quarrels of the brothers would have still further weakened the country and rendered it an easier conquest to him; but they, seeing through his ambitious designs, agreed to divide the royal power between them, and turn their forces against him. Disappointed in his object, Antiochus again invaded Egypt in the following year (B.C. 168), and declared that he would not withdraw his forces unless Cyprus, and the strong city of Pelusium, with the surrounding country, were ceded to him. As the possession of the city of Pelusium would have enabled him at any time to overrun Egypt, his proposals were refused; and he accordingly marched towards Alexandria, but was again met within four iniles of the city by the Roman ambassadors, who compelled him to depart from Egypt. (Liv., xiv. 11, 12.) The two brothers however did not agree; and in the seventh year of their joint reign Philometor was driven from Egypt by Physcon, and obliged to take refuge in Rome. He was treated with great distinction by the senate, who restored him to his kingdom, and limited the dominions of Physcon to Cyrene. (Liv., Epit., 46, 47; Valerius Max., v. 1, §1.) In the following year Physcon went to Rome to complain of the unequal division of the Egyptian kingdom, and to beg that Cyprus might be given to him. The senate complied with his request, and commanded Philometor to surrender that island to his brother Philometor however refused to do so; and the Romans accordingly declared war against him, B.C. 159 (Diod. Sic., vol. ii., p. 626, ed. Wesseling), but did not prosecute it with much activity. They did not send any force to the assistance of Physcon, but gave permission to their allies in Greece and Asia to enlist under his standard. (Polyb., xxxiii. 5.) In the war which followed between the brothers, the Romans took no part. Physcon was defeated in Cyprus. and fell into the hands of Philometor, who however forgave him, and allowed him to retain the sovereignty of Cyrene. (Polyb., xl. 12; Diod. Sic., vol. ii., p. 588.) About the year B.c. 151, Ptolemy Philometor marched into Syria to support Alexander Balas (Justin, xxxv. 1), who had been acknowledged king of Syria by the Romans. in opposition to Demetrius, the rightful heir. [ALEXANDER BALAS.] By the assistance of Philometor and the kings of Pergamus and Cappadocia, Alexander obtained possession of the throne, and married, in B.C. 150, Cleopatra, the daugh ter of Philometor. (1 Macc., x. 57, 58; Joseph., Antiq., xiii. 4,1.) Shortly afterwards however Philometor, accusing Alexander of an intention to murder him, took away his daughter, and gave her in marriage to Demetrius II. He then marched into Syria, and was crowned at Antioch as king of Asia and Egypt; but afraid of exciting the jealousy of the Romans, he relinquished Syria to his new son-in-law. During these transactions Alexander was in Cilicia; and as soon as he heard of what had taken place, he marched towards Antioch, near which he was defeated by Ptolemy and Demetrius. Philometor however died a few days after wards of the wounds which he had received in battle. (1 Macc., xi. i-18; Joseph., Antiq., xiii. 4, § 6-8; Justin, xxxix. 2.) The character of Ptolemy Philometor is favourably drawn both by Polybius (xxix. 9, § 13; xl. 12) and Diodorus (vol. ii., p. 588). He was an active and enterprising prince, and did much during the latter years of his reign to repair the losses which his subjects had sustained by the conquests of Antiochus Epiphanes, and in the wars between himself and his brother. He was mild and merciful, and his conduct in that respect was a striking contrast to that of his father and brother. He died B.C. 146, after a reign of thirty-five years. (Clinton.) He left a son, who was only a child at his death, and two daughters of the name of Cleopatra, of whom one married successively Alexander Balas and Demetrius, as already stated, and the other afterwards reigned in Egypt jointly with her sons. VII. PTOLEMÆUS, surnamed EUERGETES II., or PHYSCON (big-belly), succeeded his brother B.C. 146, and commenced his reign by putting to death his brother's son. (Justin, xxxviii. 8.) Physcon is represented by the antient writers as a cruel and sensual tyrant. He derived his name of Physcon, or Big-Belly, from his unwieldy form; for he was, according to Justin (xxxviii. 8) and Diodorus (vol. ii., p. 597), ugly in face, short in stature, big-bellied, and more like a beast than a man. The portrait which Rosellini gives of Physcon, from the antient monuments of Egypt, is also that of a fat and sensual man. (British Museum,' Egyptian Antiquities, vol. ii., p. 88, 89.) Posidonius the Stoic also described him (Athen., xii., p. 549) as a fat unwieldy man, who never went out without a stick. He married Cleopatra, his own sister and his brother's widow, who bore him a son in the second year of his reign, while he was at Memphis for the purpose of being crowned. (Diod., vol. ii., p. 595.) He soon afterwards put away his sister, and married her younger daughter, his own niece, Cleopatra. He practised all kinds of cruelties upon his subjects, till at length Alexandria became almost deserted, and Physcon was obliged to solicit strangers to settle there. (Justin, xxxviii. 8.) He possessed an able minister in Hierax (Diod., vol. ii., p. 597), who compensated in some degree for the inactivity of the king, and restrained for a time the discontents of his subjects; but at length the poople could bear his cruelty no longer, and in the sixteenth year of his reign compelled him to fly to Cyprus. The government was committed by the people to Cleopatra, his sister and divorced wife. Her son was with his father at Cyprus; and Physcon, fearing lest she might make use of her son's name to strengthen her on the throne, put him to death, and sent his hands, feet, and head to Cleopatra, with directions that they should be given her in the midst of an entertainment. (Diod., vol. ii., p. 602, 603; Justin, xxxviii. 8; Liv., Epit., 59; Valer. Max., ix. 2, § 5.) In the war which followed, Physcon again obtained possession of the throne, which he held till his death, B.C. 117. In the year BC. 143, Scipio Africanus was sent at the head of a Roman embassy to Egypt, and was received with great pomp and respect by Physcon, who conducted him as far as Memphis. (Diod. Sic.. vol. ii., p. 629, 630; Justin, xxxviii. 8.) Physcon, though a sensualist and a tyrant, was a patron of learning and the fine arts. He was a disciple of Aris | tarchus, and wrote himself an historical work, which is fre quently referred to by Athenæus (ii., p. 71; xiv., p. 654, &c.). Physcon had by his niece Cleopatra five children; two sons. Ptolemy Soter and Alexander, and three daughters, Tryphæa, Cleopatra, and Selene. He also left an illegitimate son, Ptolemy Apion, who reigned at Cyrene, and bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans at his death in B.C. 96. (Clinton, vol. iii., D. 389.) VIII. PTOLEMÆUS, surnamed SOTER II., but more frequently called LATHY'RUS (Adłovρoç, Strab., p. 795), succeeded his father Euergetes II., B.C. 117. He reigned together with his mother Cleopatra, who wished to have her younger son Alexander for her partner on the throne, but she was obliged by the people to select the elder. (Justin, xxix. 3.) She always showed the greatest hostility to her eldest son, who is sometimes in consequence called ironically Philometor. (Paus., i., ix. § 1.) During the lifetime of Physcon, Lathyrus was sent to Cyprus; and though compelled to make him king, she did everything in her power to weaken his authority. At the commencement of his reign she compelled him to put away his sister Cleopatra, to whom he was married, and marry his youngest sister Selene. (Justin, xxxix. 3.) She gave the island of Cyprus to her younger son, and after reigning ten years in conjunction with Lathyrus, at length raised an insurrection in Alexandria against him, which compelled him to leave Egypt. She permitted him however to retire to Cyprus, after taking away from him his wife Selene; and recalled her younger son Alexander to Egypt, and as iated him with her in the government, B.C. 107. (Justin xxix. 4; Paus., i. 9, § 2.) Lathyrus subsequently took an active part in the airs of Palestine. Gaza and some other cities of Palestine requested his assistance against Alexander Jannæus, and he accordingly landed in Palestine with an army of 30,000 men. (Joseph., Antiq., xiii. 12.) He at first met with considerable success, but Cleopatra, fearing lest her son, after the conquest of Palestine, should march upon Egypt, sent an army to the assistance of Alexander, which compelled Lathyrus to give up the war and retire to Cyprus. In the year B.C. 89, Cleopatra was put to death, after a reign of 28 years, by her favourite son Alexander, who wished to obtain the sole possession of the crown. The people however rose against him a few months after, and compelled him to flee from Egypt. His brother Lathyrus was then restored. (Paus., i. 9, § 2, 3; Justin, xxxix. 5.) The city of Thebes however refused to submit to his authority; but it was taken and plundered after a siege of three years. (Paus., i. 9, § 3.) He died B.C. 81, leaving a daughter, Berenice or Cleopatra, and two illegitimate sons, Ptolemy Auletes and Ptolemy who reigned in Cyprus. The latter is mentioned in several of Cicero's orations (Pro Sextio, 26; Pro Domo, 8, 20; Pro Flacco, 13). There is some difficulty respecting the immediate successor of Lathyrus. It appears that there were two kings of the name of Alexander, who successively reigned between the death of Lathyrus and the accession of Auletes; but as Clemens of Alexandria (Strom., i., p. 331) and Strabo (xvii., p. 796) both mention Auletes as the immediate successor of Lathyrus, the authority of the two Alexanders was probably not acknowledged in all parts of Egypt, or they must at least have reigned for a very short time. The subject is fully discussed by Mr. Clinton (vol. iii., p. 391, 392). IX. PTOLEMÆUS, surnamed NEOS DIONY'SUS, the young Dionysus,' but more commonly AULETES, 'the piper,' was an illegitimate son of Lathyrus, and succeeded to the throne B.C. 81. His vices and low habits made him contemptible to his people (Strabo, xvii., p. 796; compare Cic., De Leg. Agrar., ii. 16), who expelled him from Alexandria in B.C. 58. He came to Rome in the same year, and on his way thither met Cato at Rhodes. (Plut., Cat. Min., c. 35.) The Alexandrians placed upon the throne Berenice, the daughter of Auletes, and sent ambassadors to Rome to plead their cause against the king. Auletes however found means to gain over a large party in the senate. Cicero made a speech in his favour, which was afterwards published, but of which only a few fragments have come down to us; and the creditors of Auletes, who were very numerous, used every exertion to obtain his restoration to his kingdom. In the following year, B.C. 57 the senate passed a decree for his restoration; but in B.C. 56 there was much dispute respecting the manner iz. which and the persons by whom he should be restored In conse quence of the opposition which was made against him, nothing was done in that year; and we find that he retired in despair to Ephesus. (Dio., xxxix. 12-16; Cic., Ep. ad Qu. Fr., ii. 2; Ad Fam., i. 1, 2.) Auletes however possessed a powerful friend in Pompey, and in consequence of his support he prevailed upon Gabinius, in B.C. 55, to undertake his restoration. (Dio., xxxix. 55; Strabo, xvii., p. 796; Liv., Epit., 105; Cic., in Pison., 21.) Berenice, whom the Alexandrians placed upon the throne, first married Seleucus, called Cybiosactes by Strabo, the pretended son of Antiochus Eusebes, and afterwards Archelaus, the son of the Archelaus who had carried on war against Sulla. Auletes, on his restoration in B.C. 55, put to death both Archelaus and his daughter. (Strabo, xvii., p. 796.) Anletes survived his restoration about three years and a half, and died in the beginning of May, B.C. 51. (Clinton, vol. iii., p. 395.) He left two sons, called Ptolemy, and two daughters, Cleopatra and Arsinoe. The history of his two sons is given under CLEOPATRA. PTOLEMÆUS, CLAU'DIUS, a native of Egypt, but the place of his birth is not ascertained: the surname of Pelusiota, which is given to him in some editions of his works, appears to be a mistake of the copyists or translators. He lived at Alexandria in the first half of the second century of our æra, under the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius. Nothing more is known of his life, except his works. He was an astronomer, chronologist, and geographer. Ptolemy's Geography was for many centuries the text-book in that science for all the schools, and was superseded only in the fifteenth century, in consequence of new information derived from the discoveries of the Venetian, Portuguese, and other travellers and navigators. tance between the Sacrum Promontorium of Spain and the eastern mouth of the Ganges at 70,000 stadia. These 70,000 stadia being reduced into degrees of 700 stadia each, give 100 degrees for the whole longitudinal distance, which is not far from the truth. But Ptolemy, by taking his degree of longitude too small, made 146 degrees between the two points. But again, if we reduce these 146 degrees at the rate of 500 stadia each, we shall have about 73,000 stadia.' See also on this subject both Mannert and Ukert, in their respective works, both entitled Geographie der Griechen und Römer.' Dr. Brehmer, in his 'Entdeckungen im Alterthum,' 1822, pretends that Ptolemy consulted some Phoenician charts, and he lays great stress upon the geographical knowledge of the antient Phoenicians. Gosselin however, as well as Heeren' (Commentatio de Fontibus Geographicorum Ptolemæi, Tubularumque iis annexarum, Göttingen, 1827), reject Brehmer's hypothesis: they reduce within very moderate dimensions the supposed geographical and astronomical knowledge of the Phoenicians, and trace the sources of Ptolemy's peculiar information to other quarters, and especially to the discoveries and conquests made by Roman commanders between the time of Augustus and the age of the Antonines, to the long peace which subsisted between the Romans and the Parthians under Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, and the flourishing commerce which was carried on during that period between the Roman empire and the remotest parts of India. Marinus of Tyre, who lived about the year 100 of our æra, had written a geography and constructed maps of which Ptolemy availed himself. Ptolemy begins by stating in his first book the object of his work, and explains the elements of mathematical geography. He then, after mentioning with praise his predecessor Marinus of Tyre, notices, in chapters vi. to xviii., the errors into which that geographer had fallen, and corrects them. Marinus had read the geographical works and itineraries of most of those who had preceded him, and had constructed maps which he repeatedly corrected in successive editions; but Ptolemy, as he says, still found much to correct in the work of Marinus. Ptolemy mentions several travellers from whose itineraries Marinus had derived much of his information, such as a certain Diogenes who navigated the Indian seas; Dioscorus and Theophilus, who frequented the harbour of Azania, on the eastern coast of Africa; Alexander, a Macedonian, who had sailed from the Chersonesus Aurea to Cattigara; Philemon, who had visited Hibernia; and a certain Titianus, called Maës, whose agents used to trade as far as Serica, the modern Tibet or Chinese Tartary; but he adds (chap. 17) that some of the information collected by Marinus had been superseded by the testimony of more recent travellers and navigators, whom he, Ptolemy, had consulted, especially with regard to the remote regions of India. In the last three chapters of the first book, Ptolemy describes the method of drawing maps adapted to represent the spherical form of the globe. Ptolemy and Strabo followed a different method in their respective works. Strabo's work is a descriptive geography; Ptolemy's is a mathematical geography. Strabo wrote mainly for the instruction of persons engaged in administration: he describes the physical character of each country, its extent, and its political divisions; he gives some historical account of the various peoples that had inhabited it; and he then proceeds to notice the subdivisions, the mountains, valleys, rivers, and towns, with their respective distances from each other, and the objects worthy of remark in them. He makes us acquainted with each place in a manner resembling that of modern books of travels, or guide-books. Ptolemy on the other hand applies himself to fix the astronomical position of each place; he gives a bare list of names of mountains, rivers, and towns, with their respective longitude and latitude, without any description, or at least only a few words. Strabo endeavours to ascertain the forms of the large masses of land and of the seas by a combination of itinerary distances between various points, referring only to a few positions which had been ascertained by actual observation: Ptolemy fixes the position of each place as if it were ascertained by astronomical observation. Ptolemy availed himself of the labours of Eratosthenes, Hipparchus, and the other mathematicians of With book ii. begins the description of the known world, the Alexandrian school [HIPPARCHUS]; but by adopting which in the time of Ptolemy extended, from west to east, the method of Hipparchus in the projection of the map, in from the Fortunate or Canary Islands, where Ptolemy order to assimilate it to the spheroidal form of the earth, places his first meridian, to the vaguely defined regions of he committed a material error in his longitudes, all of which Serica and Sinæ, near the western and south-western he places too far to the east. Beginning from Calpe, he borders of China, somewhere between 100° and 105° east of places it 5° east of the Sacrum Promontorium of Iberia or London, embracing altogether about 120 degrees of longiSpain, an error of 1° 50', and goes on increasing the excess tude, or one-third of the actual circumference of the globe, of longitude as he advances to the eastward, making the which extent however, through Ptolemy's error already nolength of the Mediterranean twenty degrees more than it is. ticed, was magnified by him to 180 degrees, or a full hemiHe proceeds through Asia in the same way, till he places sphere. To the northward Ptolemy's known world extended the mouths of the Ganges above forty-six degrees more to to the sixty-third parallel of north latitude, in which he the eastward than the true position. Gosselin, at the end places the island of Thule north of Caledonia, near the site of his Géographie des Grecs analysée,' gives tables which of the Shetland Islands. Some think that the Thule of show the difference between Ptolemy's positions and the Ptolemy was Norway. To the south, Ptolemy's known true ones. Gosselin supposes that Ptolemy was led into world extends nearly to the equator, but he places his this material error by estimating the degree of longitude at latitudes about ten degrees too far south. He places the 500 stadia at the equator, and at 400 stadia in the parallel sources of the true Nile, or Abiad, in about 7° S. lat., and of Rhodes; while Eratosthenes had reckoned the first at the emporium of Rhapta, on the eastern coast of Africa, 700 stadia, and the second at 555. But Ptolemy retained and that of Cattigara, on the coast of the Sinæ, in about 8°. Eratosthenes's measure of 700 stadia for a degree of latitude, By comparing Ptolemy's world with that of Strabo, it may because he found that if he were to reckon the degree of be seen how much the limits of the known world were exlatitude at 500, all his latitudes, several of which had been tended during the century and a quarter which elapsed from fixed by observation, would be too high; and that Alex- the time of Augustus and Tiberius to that of the Antoandria, for instance, instead of being in 31°, would be in nines. Strabo's information did not extend northwards 43°, and Marseille in 60°. The different value given to the beyond the Elbe; of Britain he knew little, and of Hibernia stadium by different geographers was a cause of much con- nothing; to the eastward it only extended as far as Tafusion. Eratosthenes,' says Gosselin, had fixed the dis-probana (Ceylón) and the mouth of the Ganges. Ptolemy |