alloys, each of the size of a pin's head; the indestructi- | Augite, Baikalite, Coccolite, Diopside, Fassaite, Jeffersonite, bility of the specimens, since those melted in one experi- Malacolite, Mussite, Pyrgom, and Sahlite. Primary form an oblique rhombic prism. Cleavage pa ment need only to be flattened under a hammer, when they will be again ready for use; and the facility of notation, rallel to the lateral planes and both diagonals. Fracture Hardness 50 to 60. Colourless, since two letters and the decimal of alloy will express the uneven, conchoidal. maximum heat: thus S 3 G expresses the temperature of grey, black, brown, yellow, green of many shades. Streak the fusing-point of silver when alloyed with gold in the pro- paler. Lustre vitreous and vitreo-resinous. Transparent to portion of 7 to 3; and G 23 P expresses the fusing-point of opaque. Specific gravity 3.23 to 3:35. gold when alloyed with platina in the proportion of 77 to 23. For a more particular account of this mode of determining temperatures we refer the reader to the memoir cited.

Several suggestions have been made for employing the expansion of air, on the principle of the differential thermometer, as a measure of high temperatures. It is proposed that one-half of the instrument be composed of platinum, so as to fit it for exposure to a great heat, and the other part of glass. The suggestion, we believe, is originally due to Mr. Schmidt (Nicholson's Journal, xi., p. 141); but was brought forward under another form by Mr. Nicholas Mill, in the Monthly Medico-Chirurgical Review and ChemicoPhilosophical Magazine,' vol. i., Lond., 1824; again by Dr. Ure, in his 'Dictionary of Chemistry;' and lastly by Mr. Prinsep. The instrument, we believe, has been constructed upon each of the plans proposed. That of Mr. Prinsep appears the most complete (see a drawing of the apparatus in full operation at page 87 of his Memoir above referred to), and was employed by him to connect the fusing-points of his alloys with the thermometric scale; but the principle upon which they all rest involves the assumption that the increase of temperature is proportional to the expansion of the

air.

A valuable table of the expansions of different substances, collected from various sources by Mr. Francis Baily, is given in the first volume of the 'Transactions of the Astronomical Society, p. 416.

(Biot's Physique Experimentale; Philosophical Transactions; Thomson's Chemistry; Brewster's Cyclopædia; Encyclopædia Britannica; and the works cited.) PYROMORPHITE. [LEAD-Ores.]

Massive Varieties, amorphous. Structure granular, columnar, parallel, and radiating, laminar.

Found in lava and basaltic rocks, and the older rocks in most parts of the earth.

Analysis of the variety called Augite, from Etna, by Vauquelin:-Silica, 52; lime, 13.20; magnesia, 10; peroxide of iron, 14:66; alumina, 3.33; oxide of manganese, 2.

The results of the analysis of the different varieties vary considerably, especially in the proportion of oxide of iron, lime, and magnesia.

PYROXYLIC SPIRIT. This substance was discovered by Mr. Philip Taylor in 1812, but not described by him till 1822, when he gave an account of it in the Philosophical Magazine' for that year, under the name of pyroligneous ather: its present appellation was given to it by Macaire and Marcet.

When wood is distilled for the purpose of preparing pyroligneous or impure acetic acid, pyroxylic spirit is also formed, and found in the liquid distilled: when this is subjected to rectification, the first tenth part of the product contains the spirit in question. It is purified by repeated rectifications, the last being made over lime, by which a quantity of ammonia is set free that had existed in the state of acetate. Dr. Kane purified it by rectification with chloride of calcium.

PYROPHYLLITE (Radiated Talc) occurs in fibrous radiating masses and small prisms of indeterminate form. Hardness 15. Colour light green. Lustre pearly, trans-inflammable liquid, and burns without residue; and being parent in thin lamina. Specific gravity 2.8.

Before the blowpipe, exfoliates into white leaves, but does not fuse. With borax, gives a green glass, which becomes colourless when cold; with soda, gives a transparent yellow glass. Occurs near Beresof, in the Uralian Mountains, Siberia.

Analysis by Hermann :—Silica, 59′79; alumina, 29:46; magnesia, 400; oxide of iron, 180; water, 5'62.

PYRORTHITE occurs imbedded in granite or quartz, in Fracture single or aggregated slender columnar masses. conchoidal, uneven, earthy. Hardness 2.5. Colour blackish brown. Lustre resinous. ́ Opaque. Specific gravity 2·19. When cautiously heated by the blowpipe it takes fire and burns without either flame or smoke; it afterwards becomes white, and eventually fuses into a black enamel. With borax it gives a transparent glass. Dissolves in acids when heated, except a black powder. It is found near Fahlun in Sweden.

Analysis by Berzelius:-Silica, 10'43; oxide of cerium, 1392; oxide of iron, 6'08; yttria, 487; alumina, 3.59; ime, 181; oxide of manganese, 1:39; water, 26.50; carbon and loss, 31'41.

PYROSMALITE occurs crystallized in hexagonal prisms. Primary form a rhomboid. Cleavage distinct, perpendicular to the axis; indistinct, parallel to the planes of the prism. Fracture uneven, conchoidal. Hardness 4'0 to 45. Colour greyish yellow. Streak pale. Lustre vitreous, pearly on the cleavage faces. Translucent, opaque. Specific gravity Heated with 3:08. When heated in a tube, yields water. borax, dissolves readily, and exhibits the characteristic colours of iron.

It is found at Nordmark in Sweden. Analysis by Hisinger:-Silica, 35850; muriatic acid, 14095; protoxide of iron, 21-810; protoxide of manganese, 21.140; lime, 1210; water, 5.985.

PYROSO'MA. [SALPACEA.]

PYROXENE. This mineral has received various names, probably because it has been found in different countries, and under slightly varying circumstances and properties the different names by which it has been known are Alalite:

The properties of this substance are, that when pure it is colourless, has a peculiar penetrating smell, partaking both of alcohol and æther, and its taste is pungent: its specific gravity at 68° is 0.798, and that of its vapour at 212° is 1120, that of the vapour of water = 1. It boils at about 150° Fahr. It does not become coloured by exposure to light and air, mixes with water without being rendered turbid, has no action upon vegetable colours, and does not form a black precipitate with protonitrate of mercury. It is an extremely cheaper than spirit of wine, it is advantageously substituted for it in spirit-lamps, and for the purpose of dissolving resins in rendering certain manufactures water-proof; it is especially employed for this purpose in hat-making. Pyroxylic spirit is similar to alcohol in many of its properties: in density, volatility, inflammability, the solution of resins, and miscibility in all proportions with water: they differ however in one very remarkable circumstance, which is, that pyroxylic spirit yields no æther by the action of acids. This spirit has been analyzed by Kane, and by Dumas and Peligot, with results which very nearly agree:

Dumas and Peligot consider pyroxylic spirit as containing a peculiar carburetted hydrogen, which they call methylen, and which is in fact a dicarburet of hydrogen, similar in composition to light carburetted hydrogen gas. It is capable of combining with chlorine, iodine, and other elementary bodies; it unites also with acids to form various compounds, and pyroxylic spirit is an oxide of this carburetted hydrogen.

PYRRHO, a Greek philosopher, and founder of the Pyrrhonian or first Sceptic school, was the son of Pleistarchus, or Pleistocrates, and a native of Elis, a town of Peloponnesus. He lived about the time of Philip and Alexander of Macedonia, and was originally a poor painter; but after having learned the elements of science from Dryson, he followed Alexander the Great in his eastern expedition, and thus became acquainted with the doctrines of the Indian gymnosophists and the Persian magi. (Diog. Laert., ix. 11, 2.) He was also an ardent admirer of Democritus. During the greater part of his life he lived in quiet retirement, abstaining from pronouncing any decided opinion upon anything, and endeavouring to preserve the greatest calmness and compo sure in whatever circumstances he was placed, so that neither

pain nor pleasure affected him. Notwithstanding this apparently inactive and indolent mode of life, he was highly honoured by his countrymen, who not only made him their high-priest, but, for his sake, decreed that all philosophers should be exempt from the payment of taxes. (Diog. Laert., ix. 11, 5.) Pausanias (vi. 24, 4) saw his statue in a portico at Elis, and a monument erected in honour of him at a little distance from the town. The Athenians honoured him with the franchise of their city, though the motive which Diogenes Laertius gives for it is a mere fable. He died at the advanced age of ninety.

An undisturbed peace of mind (áraðía) appeared to him the highest object of philosophy; and thinking that this peace of mind was disturbed by the dogmatic systems and the disputes of all other philosophic schools, he was led to scepticism, which he carried to such a degree, that he considered a real knowledge of things to be altogether impossible, and virtue to be the only thing worth striving after. (Cic., De Fin., iv. 16.) On all occasions therefore he answered his opponents, What you say may be true, but Iversary of Cassander, was obliged to withdraw his forces cannot decide. This and other similar expressions drew upon him the ridicule of his adversaries; and most of the absurd anecdotes respecting his conduct in the common occurrences of life, which Diogenes repeats with all the credulity of a gossip, are probably the fabrications of his opponents, made for the purpose of ridiculing Pyrrho. He had many distinguished followers and disciples, who are called Pyrrhonii, or simply Sceptics: some of them are mentioned and characterised by Diogenes Laertius (ix., c. 7, &c., and c. 12; comp. Gellius, xi. 5: and Cic., De Orat., iii. 17). Their doctrines and mode of reasoning are seen clearest in the works of Sextus Empiricus: their object was rather to overthrow all other systems than to establish a new one; hence we can scarcely speak of a school of Pyrrhonists, inasmuch as they opposed every school. The whole phi losophy of Pyrrho and his followers is called Pyrrhonism, a name which, in subsequent times, has been applied to any kind of scepticism, though the Pyrrhonian philosophy in reality is only one particular and an elementary form of scepticism. Cicero, in several passages, speaks of the philosophy of Pyrrho as long exploded and extinct. Pyrrho himself is said by some antient authors to have left no works behind him; the tropes, or epochs, or fundamental principles of his philosophy, being justly ascribed to one or more of his followers. But Sextus Empiricus (Adv. Math., i. 282) says that he wrote a poem addressed to Alexander the Great, for which he was richly rewarded: and Athenæus (x., p. 419) quotes a passage from a work of Pyrrho, the character of which is entirely unknown. The first writer on the scepticism of Pyrrho is said to have been Timon, his friend and disciple, whose life is written by Diogenes Laertius.

PYRRHOCERAS. [CORVIDE, vol. viii., p. 72.] PY'RRHOCORAX. [CORVIDE, vol. viii., p. 72.] PYRRHO'DES. [PSITTACIDE.] Mr. Swainson's generic character is as follows::

Bill and general structure as in Lorius. Tail cuneated, very long; the feathers narrow and pointed; the two middle pairs greatly exceeding the others.

Locality.-Indian Islands.

Example, Pyrrhodes Papuensis, Le Vaill., i., pl. 77.
PY'RRHULA. [BULLFINCH.]

PYRRHULI'NÆ, Mr. Swainson's name for a subfamily
of Fringillida, comprising the genera Pyrrhulauda, Smith;
Pyrrhula, with subgenera Crithagra and Spermophila;
Psittirostra; Corythus; Humorhous, Sw.; and Loxia,
Linn.

PYRRHULAUDA. The following is the generic cha

racter:

Bill short; the sides much compressed; the tip entire; the culmen arched; commissure straight. Nostrils concealed by the frontal feathers. Wings moderate; the first quill very small and spurious; the three next equal, and longest. Tail moderate, slightly forked. Feet black. Tarsi moderate. Toes very small. Lateral toes equal. Hinder claws lengthened, slightly curved. Smith. (Sw.)

Example, Pyrrhulauda leucotis, 'Pl. Col.' 269, f. 2. PY'RRHUS, king of Epirus, born about the year 318 B.C., was the son of Aeacides and Phthia, daughter of Meno the Thessalian, who distinguished himself in the Lamian war. The fabulous genealogies of his family traced his origin back to Neoptolemus, whose father Achilles is said to have been honoured as a god by the Epirota under the

name of Aspetus. Aeacides, who had come to the throne
after the death of Alexander the Molossian, excited dis
content among his subjects by his constant wars against the
Mace lonians, and was in the end driven out of his king-
dom. (Justin, xvii. 3.) His only son Pyrrhus, then two
years old, would have been put to death but for the care of a
few friends, who, with the greatest difficulty, saved the child's
life. Pyrrhus was carried to Glaucias, king of the Illyrians,
whose wife belonged to the family of the Aeacida, and who
received the infant prince, and had him educated with his
own children. Great offers were made to Glaucias to in-
duce him to surrender the child, but in vain. In his house
Pyrrhus remained until his twelfth year. Aeacides, who
had in the meanwhile returned to his country, fell in a
battle against Cassander; and Glaucias now, with an armed
force, led Pyrrhus back to Epirus, and the Epirotæ gladly
received the young prince as their king. (Plut., Pyrrh., 3;
Justin, xvii. 3.) A regency was appointed, who governed
the kingdom in his name. When Demetrius, the chief ad-
from Europe to Asia, Cassander contrived to induce the
Molossians to expel their king again. Pyrrhus, now seven-
teen years of age, joined Demetrius, who had married his
sister Deidamia. In the battle of Ipsus (301 B.c.), which
terminated so unhappily for Demetrius and his father,
Pyrrhus gave the first proofs of his impetuous courage. After
the battle he went over from Asia to Greece, and exerted him-
self to save the remains of the forces of Demetrius; and when
Ptolemæus, king of Egypt, made peace with him, Pyrrhus
went as a hostage to Alexandria. Here he soon won the affec-
tions and the esteem of Berenice, the king's favourite wife,
who gave him her daughter Antigone, by her first husband
Philip, in marriage, and seems to have prevailed upon Ptole-
mæus to provide her new son-in-law with a fleet and money,
and to send him back to his kingdom. Pyrrhus, on his
arrival, reconciled himself with Neoptolemus, whom the
Molossians, during his absence, had raised to the throne,
and agreed to share the government with him. Neop-
tolemus was of a savage and cruel temper; and he soon
conceived such a jealousy and hatred of his colleague, that
he even attempted the life of Pyrrhus, who, to secure
himself, put Neoptolemus to death, 295 BC. (Plut
Pyrrh., 5.) From this time Velleius Paterculus (i. 14)
dates the commencement of the reign of Pyrrhus. Soon
after this event, Alexander, the younger son of Cassander,
who had been expelled from Macedonia by his brother An-
tipater, sought the aid of Pyrrhus, which was granted on
condition that Alexander should give up Tymphaea and
Parauaea (Niebuhr, Hist. of Rome, iii., p. 536), together
with Ambracia, Acarnania, and Amphilochia. Pyrrhus at
the same time formed an alliance with the Etolians, and
was thus enabled to resist Demetrius, who, after having
murdered Alexander, had become king of Macedonia (294
B.C.). Secret jealousy had long existed between Demetrius
and Pyrrhus. After the death of Deidamia, Demetrius
carried off Lanassa, the second wife of Pyrrhus, wh
brought to her new husband the island of Corcyra, which
her father, Agathocles of Syracuse, had conquered. Upon
this open war broke out between the two kings.
metrius invaded Etolia, where he made some conquests;
but leaving Pantauchus behind with a considerable force, h
directed his march against Pyrrhus, who at the same time
was setting out to protect his allies. The two kings, having
taken different roads, passed each other without being awar
of it; and Pyrrhus entered Ætolia, while Demetrius ravaged
Epirus. Pyrrhus met Pantauchus, and a great baiti:
ensued. Pantauchus, who was by far the ablest general of
Demetrius, challenged Pyrrhus to single combat, in which
the Macedonian, after receiving two severe wounds, was
conquered, but not killed, being snatched away by his
friends. The Epirota, encouraged by the news of the
victory which their heroic king had gained, slaughter.d
many of the Macedonians, made five thousand prisoners,
and chased the rest out of their country.

De

Pyrrhus now invaded Macedonia, where he penetrated as far as Edessa, and was joyfully received by many Mare donians, who joined his army. Lysimachus at the sam time made an attack on Macedonia from Thrace. The mud conduct of Pyrrhus during this expedition induced nearly the whole of the Macedonian army to desert Demetrius, and to salute Pyrrhus as king of Macedonia (287 B.C.). Deme trius fled into Asia, where he was defeated by the son of Lysimachus, and surrendered himself prisoner to Seleucus

Lysimachus now claimed to share the conquest; and Pyrr- | own soldiers, and proposed to the Roman captives to serve hus, who did not think it safe to enter into a new con- in his army. They all refused; and Pyrrhus honoured their test with the aged general of Alexander, consented to divide fidelity by sending 200 of them back to Rome. (Niebuhr, Macedonia between himself and Lysimachus. But this Hist. of Rome, iii., p. 559; Justin., xviii. 1.) Pyrrhus division only gave rise to fresh disputes. Lysimachus soon purchased this success with the flower of his own army, and began to feel that Pyrrhus was an obstacle to his ambition. he said that another such victory would compel him to (Plut., Pyrrh., 12.) The consequence was, that a few years return to Epirus. after the division of Macedonia, when Demetrius was defeated in Syria, Lysimachus, having now no other enemy to fear, attacked Pyrrhus in his portion of Macedonia. The Macedonians, perhaps bearing a grudge against Pyrrhus for having consented to the division of their country, were easily persuaded to abandon the king of Epirus, who, without offering any resistance, withdrew his forces from the kingdom of Macedonia about 283 B.C. (Niebuhr, Hist. of Rome, iii., note, 813.)

The field of battle on the river Siris has latterly become a subject of great interest. In the year 1820 two bronzes of the most exquisite workmanship were found not far from the river, and near the site of the old town of Grumentum (now Saponara in the province of Basilicata), and within the enclosure of a ruin which has perhaps been a small temple. These bronzes, called the Bronzes of Siris, which were originally gilt, are each a little more than seven English inches in length. On each of them is represented in very high relief a hero fighting with an Amazon. They are now in the British Museum, and may at first sight be recognised as fragments of a magnificent cuirass. The character and the beautiful style of the work render it certain that they belonged to the school, or at least to the period, of Lysippus. They were in all probability brought over to the spot where they were found, by some one in the army of Pyrrhus, and may perhaps have formed part of the armour of the king himself or of one of his generals, though there is no evidence to prove this supposition. (Bröndsted, The Bronzes of Siris, an archaeological essay, London, 1836.)

Pyrrhus now enjoyed a few years of peace and happiness; but in 281 B.C. he was requested by the Tarentines to give them his assistance against the Romans. The Tarentines declared that they merely wanted a skilful general, that a sufficient number of soldiers would be raised in Italian Greece, as the Lucanians, Messapians, the Samnites, and they themselves, would furnish an army of 20,000 horse and 350,000 foot. These promises, and the hope of adding Italy and Sicily to his dominions, excited among the Epirotæ, no less than in Pyrrhus himself, so great a desire to enter this new field of action, that neither the wise remarks of the eloquent Cineas, nor the unfavourable season of the year, After the battle on the Siris, Pyrrhus advanced to within could prevent him from immediately setting out. Cineas 300 stadia of Rome, and was joined by the Lucanians and was sent first with 3000 soldiers, and the king followed in Samnites. The Romans, undaunted by their defeat, and Tarentine vessels of transport with an army of 3000 horse, deserted by many of their allies, raised new troops and de2000 foot, 2000 bowmen, 500 slingers, and 20 elephants. termiued to try their strength again. It was not the inten(Plut., Pyrrh., 15.) His son Ptolemæus, by Antigone, then tion of Pyrrhus to conquer or destroy Rome, but to confifteen years of age, was left behind as guardian of the clude an honourable peace, and accordingly he sent his kingdom. (Justin., xviii. 1.) When the transports had friend Cineas to Rome to negotiate while he assembled his reached the open sea, a tremendous storm arose. The Italian allies. The conditions which he proposed were, king himself reached the Italian coast; but many of the according to the most probable account of Appian (iii. 10, ships were wrecked, and others effected their landing 1), that peace should be concluded with himself and the with great difficulty. Only a few horsemen escaped, Tarentines, that all Italian Greeks should be free, and that and 2000 foot and two elephants were lost. With the all conquests which the Romans had made in Lucania, Samremnant of his army Pyrrhus entered Tarentum. He nium, Daunia, and Bruttium, should be given up. At the soon discovered that the objects of these frivolous Greeks same time he offered to deliver all the Roman captives withcould not be attained, unless he assumed dictatorial power. out ransom. The senate of Rome hesitated, until Appius He therefore shut up all their places of amusement, com- Claudius, the blind, threw all his influence into the scale, and pelled all the men capable of bearing arms to serve as persuaded his fellow-citizens to send Cineas out of the city soldiers, and the younger to submit to regular military and to break off all negotiations. Pyrrhus, seeing that training in the gymnasia. The effeminate Greeks, who had there was no hope of peace with the Romans, advanced not expected this, left their city in great numbers. The with his army as far as Anagnia, and seems even to have troops which had been promised by their allies did not taken possession of Præneste. (Flor., i. 18, 24; Eutrop., arrive: the Lucanians and Samnites however were prevented ii. 7.) He had ravaged all the country through which he from joining Pyrrhus by the Roman consuls. When the had passed, and his soldiers, laden with booty, began to show consul Lavinus entered Lucania with a numerous army, great want of discipline. The Romans had now concluded Pyrrhus provided for the security of Tarentum, and went out a peace with the Etruscans; and the season of the year was to meet the enemy. As he however wished to defer a de- too advanced to begin a new campaign: these circumstances cisive battle until the arrival of his Greek allies, he offered combined to induce Pyrrhus to lead his troops back to Camto act as mediator between the Greeks and Romans; but pania, where he found Lævinus with a numerous army. the haughty answer of Lævinus put a stop to all negotiation, But neither of the two parties was anxious for battle, and and Pyrrhus pitched his camp on the north bank of the Pyrrhus took up his winter-quarters at Tarentum. During small river Siris, in the plain between Pandosia and He- the winter the Romans sent an embassy headed by C. Faraclea. The Romans, who were encamped on the south bricius to negotiate for an exchange of prisoners. Pyrrhus bank, were anxious to offer battle. The consul sent his refused the proposal, unless peace was concluded on the horse across the river to attack the enemy's rear; but terms proposed by Cineas; but in order to show his esteem Pyrrhus discovered the movement, and, leading his own for the enemy, he allowed the prisoners to go to Rome for cavalry against them, the battle commenced. The king the purpose of celebrating the Saturnalia, on condition that displayed the greatest activity, and was always in the midst if their fellow-citizens should not be willing to conclude of danger. His brilliant armour rendering him too con- peace, they should return after the festival. The senate spicuous, he exchanged it for that of his friend Megacles, would not hear of peace, and, after the festival was over, who, being taken for the king, was slain by a Roman. His they sent the captives back to Pyrrhus. (Appian, iii. 10, 5; armour was carried to Lævinus, who thought that the comp. Niebuhr, Hist. of Rome, iii., p. 586, &c.) king himself had fallen. The battle lasted the whole day, and the Romans advanced and retreated seven times. The elephants were of great advantage to the Greeks; for as soon as the Roman cavalry perceived the huge animals advancing and opening the way for the Thessalian horse that formed part of the army of Pyrrhus, they fled back across the river. The infantry was involved in their flight, and the whole of the Roman army would perhaps have been destroyed, had not one elephant, growing faint from his wounds, stopped the pursuit. The remnants of the Roman army thus escaped in the darkness of the night, and the victors took possession of their camp. Pyrrhus, on the next day, visited the field of battle, buried the bodies of the slain enemies, amounting to 7000, as well as those of his P. C., No. 1188.

In 279 B.C., Pyrrhus began his new campaign, and in the neighbourhood of Asculum in Apulia he met the Roman consuls P. Sulpicius and P. Decius. The king compelled the Romans to come forward into the open field by sending his elephants with a division of light-armed troops to attack their flank. The Romans endeavoured in vain to break through the phalanx; Pyrrhus was irresistible, and the elephants dispersed and routed the Roman horse. The Romans, after having lost 6000 men, took refuge in their camp; Pyrrhus lost 3500 of his soldiers, and among them the flower of his army (Plut., Pyrrh., 21; comp. Niebuhr's Hist. of Rome, iii., p. 589, &c.), and although he had gained the day, he retreated to Tarentum. He is said to have exclaimed, 'One more such battle, and we are lost.' VOL. XIX.-Z

Pyrrhus, whose mind seems to have lost its former energy and self-possession, fancied that he had incurred the anger of the goddess, and not only restored all the treasures to the temple, but endeavoured to atone for his crime by offering rich sacrifices; and as the signs appeared to be inauspicious, he put to death all those who had advised or consented to the sacrilegious act. (Appian, iii. 12.) On his march towards Tarentum, his army was attacked and harassed from the mountainous districts by numbers of Mamertines, who had come over from Sicily before him. Pyrrhus here again evinced his usual courage. A huge barbarian challenged the king to single combat, and Pyrrhus, though already wounded, hurried forward, and cut the man in two with his sword. This proof of his undaunted spirit put an end to the attacks of the barbarians, and he reached Tarentum in safety.

lost; the others, laden with the treasures, were cast back on | immediately marched towards Argos. On his road he was the coast of Locri. attacked by Areus, who lay in ambush and cut off the rear of his army. Pyrrhus left Ptolemæus behind to oppose Areus, and proceeded on his road. His son fell in a fierce battle, and Pyrrhus, turning back to avenge his death, slew with his own hand Eualcus, who had killed his son. In the meanwhile Antigonus had occupied the hills near Nauplia, and Pyrrhus pitched his camp in the plain. The Argives, dreading the issue of a battle, promised that their city should not be hostile to either party, if they would not attack it. Antigonus consented, and gave his son as a hostage. Pyrrhus likewise promised to keep peace, but gave no pledge of his intentions. In the ensuing night Aristeas opened one of the gates to him, through which Pyrrhus with his Galatians entered, and took possession of the market-place. The Argives, roused from their sleep by the noise, sent to Antigonus, who immediately advanced with his forces. Areus at the same time arrived with a select body of Cretans and Spartans. The darkness of the night and the narrowness of the streets produced the greatest confusion among the combatants. At daybreak, Pyrrhus, discovering that all the fortified parts of the city were occupied by armed troops, wished to get out of Argos. While he was making this attempt, assisted by one of his sons, he was killed by an old woman, who, seeing her son fighting with the king, threw a tile upon his head from the roof of her house.

Having here reinforced himself, he set out against the Romans, and pitched his camp in Samnium. The Romans sent out two consular armies, under Manius Curius, who marched into Samnium to meet Pyrrhus, and L. Cornelius Lentulus, who took up his position in Lucania (275 B.C.). The Samnites sent a contingent to his army, but it was small, as they bore some ill-will towards him. Pyrrhus sent a part of his army to Lucania, to prevent Lentulus joining his colleague. Curius had taken his position, and fortified himself on the hills near Beneventum, wishing to avoid battle until the arrival of Lentulus. It was the intention of Pyrrhus to attack the Roman camp by surprise before daybreak, but in order to reach the summit of the hill above the Roman camp, he had to lead his army a long and fatiguing way through the forests, and when he descended upon the Roman camp it was broad day-light. Curius turned round to attack the enemy, who after some resistance took to flight. This success emboldened Curius to direct his attack against the main army of the king in the plain. The elephants, frightened and infuriated by burning arrows, which the Romans showered on them, put the king's army into disorder, and were thus the cause of a complete defeat. The king's camp fell into the hands of the Romans. Two elephants were killed and eight taken; Pyrrhus himself, with only a few horsemen, escaped to Tarentum. He nevertheless did not despair, but sent letters to several kings, requesting them to supply him with men and money. (Paus., i. 13.) Antiochus promised to comply with his wish, but Antigonus refused. A report of advancing auxiliaries for the king kept the Romans at a distance, and enabled Pyrrhns to set sail for Epirus with the greater part of his troops. Milo however was left behind, with the command of the garrison at Tarentum, and his son Helenus. On arriving in his kingdom, Pyrrhus found himself unable to provide for the wants of his small band, and after some Galatians had joined him, he invaded Macedonia in order to gain by plunder the means of maintaining his troops. Fortune once more favoured him, and he soon made himself master of nearly the whole of Macedonia. Thinking that a more glorious field was now opening to him, he gave up all intention of returning to Italy, and recalled Milo and his son Helenus. Antigonus, who had assembled an army of Galatian mercenaries, was defeated by a son of Pyrrhus, and fled from his kingdom.

Before Pyrrhus had firmly established himself in Macedonia, he was invited by Cleonymus, a worthless Spartan, to assist him against the king Areus. Pyrrhus advanced to Sparta with a numerous army, ravaging and plundering the neighbourhood. Though king Areus was absent, Pyrrhus met with a most determined resistance from the women as well as the men of Sparta, and his son Ptolemæus, who had made his way into the city, was nearly killed. Pyrrhus himself had a severe contest at the gates of the city, which was interrupted by night, and recommenced the next morning. He succeeded in forcing his way into the city, but the united exertions of the Spartan men and women drove him from it. At the same time king Areus arrived from Crete, and auxiliaries from Corinth were on their march to Sparta, and Pyrrhus therefore gave up the contest, and contented himself with ravaging the country. He intended to take up his winter-quarters in Laconia, but another opportunity for action offered itself. Argos was distracted by two factions; one was headed by Aristeas, who called Pyrrhus to his assistance, while Aristippus, his adversary, sought the protection of Antigonus. The king

Pyrrhus died in the year 273 B.C. (Niebuhr, Hist. of Rome, iii., note, 928.) All the antients agree that he was one of the greatest generals; and Hannibal himself declared him to be the first. But great as he was in battle, he did not know how to make the best use of a victory. His am bition was rather to acquire than to preserve, and he generally soon lost the advantages which he had gained. He was grateful towards his subjects, and owned that he was indebted to them for all that he possessed. As a man, he stands pre-eminent among the kings of his time; for while they were surrounded by worthless flatterers, Pyrrhus had friends such as few kings have ever possessed. In his family he was an affectionate father and husband. A change seems to have taken place in his character from the time when he embarked for Sicily, and no blame can be attached to his conduct previous to that event. The death of Neoptolemus was a mere act of self-defence, but his conduct towards Sparta has left a stain upon his character. Pyrrhus also attempted to distinguish himself as an author (Cic., Ad Famil., ix. 25; Plut, Pyrrh., 21); but we have no means of judging of his merits in this respect, as no part of his work remains. The Life of Pyrrhus by Plutarch is one of the most exquisite specimens of biography.

Coin of Pyrrhus.

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PYRUS, the Latin word for pear-tree,' is a name now given by botanists to a considerable number of Rosaceous plants, whose collective character is to bear a fruit resembling in all essential circumstances that of the apple or pear; that is to say, inferior, fleshy, with a caralaginous lining to the cells, which are simple, and contain from 1 to 2 seeds in each. But the similarity in the fruit is by no means accompanied by an equal degree of resemblance in the foliage and manner of growth of the species, some of them being trees with the aspect of the apple and pear, while others have pinnated leaves which have caused them to be vulgarly regarded as species of ash, and many are dwarfish shrubs, with quite a peculiar appearance.

In consequence of such differences the genus is divided into several sections, the most important of which are,-1, the Apples and Pears, with oval simple leaves, and the stature of trees; 2, the Beam-trees, with coarsely toothed leaves

Z 2