nouns of the same person ; je me, tu te, il se, nous nous, vous vous, ils se. (See § 56.)

(8.) There are two verbs called auxiliary, because they serve to conjugate all others. They are-avoir, to have; and être, to be.

§ 44.-CONJUGATIONS.

(1.) The French verbs are divided into four large classes or conjugations:

1st. The first conjugation comprises all verbs of which the present of the infinitive ends in ER; as PARLER, to speak; AIMER, to love, etc.

2d. The second conjugation embraces all those of which the infinitive ends in IR; as CHÉRIR, to cherish; PUNIR, to punish, etc.

3d. The third conjugation contains all the verbs, which, in the infinitive end in OIR; such as RECEVOIR, to receive; POUVOIR, to be able, etc.

4th. The fourth conjugation comprises all the verbs terminating with BE in the infinitive; as RENDRE, to render; PRENDRE, to take, etc.

(2.) The verbs are again divided into regular, irregular, and defective:

1st. The regular verbs are those which, in all their tenses, are conjugated like the model verb of the conjugation to which they belong.

2d. The irregular verbs are those which are not, in all their tenses, conjugated like the model verb.

3d. The defective verbs are those which want certain tenses or persons.

§ 45.-MODES AND TENSES.

(1.) There are six modes; the INDICATIVE, the CONDITIONAL, the IMPERATIVE, the SUBJUNCTIVE, the INFINITIVE, and the PARTICIPLE:

1st. The indicative, whatever may be the tense, indicates or declares in a positive, absolute manner: j'abandonne, I abandon; j'ai abandonné, 1 have abandoned; j'abandonnerai, I will abandon.

2d. The conditional indicates a condition or a supposition: j'abandonnerais si....I would abandon if....

3d. The imperative is used to express a command, prayer, or exhortation: abandonnez cet enfant, abandon that child.

4th. The subjunctive is used after propositions expressing doubt, contingency, or necessity: il est douteux que je l'abandonne, it is not certain that I may abandon him.

5th. The infinitive presents the signification of the verb in an unlimited manner: abandonner ses enfants, to abandon one's children.

6th. The participle, while retaining the power of the verb, at the same time partakes of the nature of an adjective: abandonnant ses parents abandoning his relatives; abandonné de ses enfants, abandoned by his children.

(2.) The indicative has eight tenses:

1st. The present: je parle, I speak ; je donne, I give.

2d. The simultaneous past, or imperfect: je parlais, I was speaking. 3d. The past definite: je parlai, I spoke, I did speak.

4th. The past indefinite: j'ai parlé, I have spoken; j'ai donné, I have given.

5th. The past anterior:

6th. The pluperfect:

7th. The future absolute: 8th. The future anterior:

j'eus parlé,
j'avais parlé,

je parlerai,

j'aurai parlé,

(3.) The conditional has two tenses:

1st. The present or future, je parlerais, 2d. The past, j'aurais parlé,

(4.) The imperative has one tense:

I had spoken.

I had been speaking.
I shall, will speak.
I shall have spoken.

I should, would speak.
I should have spoken.

(8.) Tenses are simple or compound.

1. Simple, when they are expressed in a single word: je parle, I speak.

2. Compound, when they require the assistance of the verb avoir or être : j'ai parlé, I have spoken; je suis arrivé, I have arrived.

§ 46.-USE OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS, AVOIR AND ÊTRE (1.) The auxiliary avoir is used:

1. In the conjugation of its own compound tenses: j'ai eu, I have had.

2. In the conjugation of the compound tenses of the verb être : j'ai été, I have been.

3. In the compound tenses of the active verbs: j'ai aimé, I have loved.

4. In the compound tenses of most neuter verbs expressing an action: j'ai marché, I have walked. [See exceptions to this rule (3.) below.]

5. It is also used in the conjugation of verbs which are always unipersonal: il a plu, it has rained; il a grélé, it has hailed, etc. (2.) The verb être is used in the conjugation of:

1. All the tenses of passive verbs: je suis aimé, I am loved.

2. The compound tenses of all reflective or pronominal verbs: je me suis flatté, I have flattered myself; je me suis promené, I have walked. 3. The compound tenses of the following neuter verbs, though the same express action:

to be born;
to fall;

to come;

décéder,

to decease;

parvenir,

to succeed;

mourir,

to die;

to run towards;

4. A few unipersonal verbs, which are not always, but occasionally such: il lui est arrivé un malheur, a misfortune has happened to him. (3.) A certain number of neuter verbs: as

accourir,

disparaitre, to disappear;

partir,

to depart;

to perish;

vieillir,

to grow old;

take sometimes avoir, and sometimes être.

1. They take avoir, when we have in view the action expressed by the verb;

2. And être, when situation or condition is the principal idea which

(4.) Rester and demeurer, when meaning to dwell, to reside, take the auxiliary avoir; when they mean to remain, to be left, they take être :

(5.) Échapper, to escape, to pass unnoticed, to be forgotten, takes the auxiliary avoir. In the sense of, to say inadvertently, it takes être.

the sense of agreeing, or settling upon a price for an article, it takes

847.-PARADIGMS OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS.

To familiarize the student with the frequent use made by the French, of the indefinite pronoun on [§ 41, (4.)], we have introduced it in our conjugation of the verbs.

(1.) AVOIR, TO HAVE-AFFIRMATIVELY.