connective tissue, with its equivalents, he describes as the common stock of germs of the body; from them morbid structures proceed by continuous development. "Heterologous tissues have physiological types; and there is no other kind of heterology in morbid structures than the abnormal manner in which they arise as to place (heterotopia), time (heterochronia), and quantity (heterometria)."*

The conclusions with regard to vital force, which a consistent conception of it as a natural force seems to necessitate, will find extensive application in the various phenomena of disease. We have seen that if the resolution of the vitality of a single nerve-cell into a vitality of a lower kind be supposed-into that, for example, of polype substance-it would necessarily suffice for the production of a whole polype, or perhaps of a multitude of polypes. In other words, one nervous unit, monad, or molecule, is the vital equivalent of many units, monads, or molecules of polype substance. How idle it is, then, to dispute, as some have done, as to whether epilepsy is increased vital action or diminished vital action, when there exists no clear conception of what is meant by the words! No one can deny that there is great display of force in the convulsions of epilepsy, but is it increased vital force? Is a man in convulsions a strong man? for that is the real question. Does convulsion in a paralyzed limb indicate increased vital action of it? When tetanus of a muscle is produced, as Weber showed it might be, by putting a loop of thread round its nerve and slowly and gradually tightening it, does the violent action of the muscle testify to increased vitality? If it really does, then the mechanical tetanomotor of Heidenhain might, properly used, suffice for the cure of every paralysis, and effect a complete renewal of life.

In speaking of vital action, we may either consider the whole organism as individual, or we may consider the cell or organic monad as the individual. If we regard the organism

* Cellular Pathology.

as individual, then when general convulsions take place in it→ that is, violent and aimless movements completely withdrawn from the control of the will, which should rightly coördinate them into definite action-it is simply to use words without meaning to say that the vital action of the individual is increased. There is not, then, individual action; and the definition of vitality is not applicable to the organism as a whole. The highest manifestation of individuality is in the consciousness of man, the so-called unity of the ego; but, when the coordination of forces for a definite end is replaced by the convulsions of epilepsy, there is neither subjective nor objective unity of action. Instead of that quiet will-force which expresses conscious unity, or that unconscious unity of organic action which is manifest in sleep, there is the violent and incoherent exhibition of inferior force. Increased action is the result of a degeneration of the proper vital action. “A man in convulsions is not strong, though six men cannot hold him."

Like considerations apply when the single cell is regarded as individual. In virtue of a certain chemical constitution and a certain definite arrangement of molecules, a cell exhibits energy as nerve-force. That special mode of energy is the definite result of a certain coordination of chemical combinations and molecular relations; and these are connoted in the individuality of the cell. When, however, in place of the definite process of statical attraction (nutrition) and dynamical repulsion (energy), there takes place a large demonstrative display of force-as general epileptic convulsions, being the sum of the action of the individual cells, prove there must-it is impossible to pronounce such force as of the same rank or kind as the proper energy of the cell. It is an inferior kind of power, and the certain indication of a degeneration of the statical correlative. It is the duty of a cell, so to speak, as of an individual, to live in certain relations with its surroundings-it is, indeed, its essence as an individual cell of specific character; and, when it is not so living, it

is really degenerating, losing its nature or kind, passing more or less quickly toward death. Its action is certainly not increased functional action. In truth, it would be as just to call the extravagant action of madness in an individual occupying a certain position in a system of government increased functional action, and to say that the government was stronger for his degenerate action. A state, again, would not be powerful, would not even exist, if each individual did as his passions prompted, altogether regardless of his relations to others; and it would certainly be a strange use of language to say then that the functional action of that individual was increased.

The phenomena of conscious vitality might be used to illustrate the same principles. A passionate man is not strong-minded, nor do the ravings of insanity reveal mental vigor. A completely-fashioned will is the true mark of a strong mind. "A character," said Novalis, "is a completelyfashioned will." As in the order of natural development there has been an ascent from the physical and chemical forces to the aim-working vital force, and thence from the lowest vitality to the highest manifestation thereof, so in the course of mental development there is a progress through sensation, passion, emotion, reason, to the highest phase of mental force, a well-fashioned will. The rightly-developed mind, like the healthy cell, recognizes its relations to others; self-feeling gives place to or expands into moral feeling, and in the will all the phases of consciousness are coordinated into calm, just, definite action. Noise and fury surely indicate weakness; they are the manifestation of inferior force -the tale of an idiot signifying nothing. The strongest force is quiet force, and the ravings of insanity, which might not unjustly be compared to the convulsions of epilepsy, do not evince mental power.

May we not, then, already perceive, what advancing knowledge must ever render more clear, how the conscious mind of man blends in unity of development with the un

conscious life of Nature? As the revelation of Nature proceeds in the progress of science, the idealism of Plato and the realism of Bacon will be found to harmonize as expressions of the same truths; the generalizations of Humboldt and the poetical intuitions of Goethe may be looked upon as but different descriptions of the same facts. Idealism and realism blend and are extinguished in the intimate harmony between the individual and Nature. How great, then, the ignorance which fancies that poetry demands a rude age for its successful development! How little, again, the insight which would make of science an ugly anatomy only! After analysis comes synthesis; and, beyond the practical realization of science in works which add to human comfort, there remains the æsthetical embodiment of science. Art has now opening before it a field so wide that imagination cannot dare to limit it, for science must plainly attain to its highest development in the work of the future poet, who shall give to its reality a beautiful form. Goethe indicated the path, but he who shall accomplish it will be a greater than Goethe.*

* Perhaps the truest estimate of science, and the most remarkable prophecy with regard to it, is to be found in that wonderful tale by Goethe, "Das Mährchen,” a tale which has been described, by one who has done 'most toward making Goethe known and understood in England, “as the deepest poem of its sort in existence-as the only true prophecy emitted for who knows how many centuries."

IV.—THE LIMITS OF PHILOSOPHICAL INQUIRY.*

Ir is not a little hard upon those who now devote themselves to the patient interrogation of Nature, by means of observation and experiment, that they should be counted, whether they will or not, ministers of the so-called Positive Philosophy, and disciples of him who is popularly considered the founder of that philosophy. No matter that positive investigation within the limits which Comte prescribes was pursued earnestly and systematically before his advent, and with an exactness of method of which he had no conception; that many of those distinguished since his time for their scientific researches and generalizations have been unacquainted with his writings; that others who have studied them withhold their adherence from his doctrines, or energetically disclaim them. These things are not considered; so soon as a scientific inquirer pushes his researches into the phenomena of life and mind, he is held to be a Comtist. Thus it happens that there is a growing tendency in the public mind to identify modern science with the Positive Philosophy. Considering how much mischief has often been done by iden

* Journal of Mental Science, No. 70. The Limits of Philosophical Inquiry. Address delivered to the Members of the Edinburgh Philosophical Institu tion, November 6, 1868. By William, Lord-Archbishop of York. (Edmon、 ston and Douglas.)