WILLIAM F. ALBRIGHT, Baltimore Professor of Semitic Languages, Johns GRIGORY ARONSON, New York ISAAC L. ASOFSKY, New York Executive, Jewish Social Service Asso ciation SAMUEL ATLAS, London JULIUS BAB, New York Dramatic Critic and Author FRITZ BAER, Jerusalem Professor of History, Hebrew University MAJER SAMUEL BALABAN, Warsaw SOLOMON BALSAM, Brooklyn BERNARD J. BAMBERGER, Albany FRITZ BAMBERGER, Chicago Instructor of Philosophy, College of JOSEPH L. BARON, Milwaukee NATHAN CARO BELTH, New York EPHRAIM I. BENNETT, New York DAVID BERENT, Lewiston, Me. MARTIN BIRNBAUM, Westport, Conn. EUGENE BLACHSCHLEGER, Montgomery, Ala. Rabbi, Temple Beth-Or JOSHUA BLOCH, New York Chief, Jewish Division, New York ABRAHAM JAKOB BRAWER, Jerusalem Poet and Journalist LOUIS CASSEL, Mobile, Ala. Rabbi, Ahavas Chesed Congregation MARCUS COHN, Basel, Switzerland FERDINAND DANZIGER, New York GABRIEL DAVIDSON, New York M. DLUZNOWSKI, New York WALTER DUCAT, New York ALEXANDER M. DUSHKIN, New York ALFRED EINSTEIN, Northampton, Mass. FRANK EPSTEIN, New York EZEKIEL MOSES EZEKIEL (deceased) WALTER J. FISCHEL, Jerusalem MOSES Z. R. FRANK, New York CLARENCE I. FREED, New York HUGO FUCHS, Buenos Aires JOSEPH GAER, Washington, D. C. SERGE GELEBIAN, New York MOSES GINSBURGER, Strasbourg, France MILTON W. GOLDBERGER, Memphis, Editor, "The Hebrew Watchman" BESS GORDON, New York HIRSCH LOEB GORDON, New York L. ELLIOT GRAFMAN, Long Beach, Cal. ALAN S. GREEN, Troy, N. Y. HERMAN HAILPERIN, Pittsburgh Continued on next page GEORG HERLITZ, Jerusalem Director, Central Archive of the Jewish Agency LIONEL HILL, New York Poet ABRAHAM HORVITZ, Madison, Wis. DAVID S. JACOBSON, San Antonio, Texas MAX JOSEPH, Jerusalem HENRY E. KAGAN, Mount Vernon, N. Y. SCHIMA KAUFMAN, Washington, D. C. RUDOLF KAYSER, New York SOLOMON KERSTEIN, New York Publicity Director, Mizrachi Movement Former Ordinary Professor of Historical SAMUEL KRAUSS, Cambridge, England SAMUEL KREITER, New York ALEXANDER KRISTIANPOLLER, Jerusalem CORLISS LAMONT, New York JUDA LEO LANDAU, Johannesburg, South Chief Rabbi, Federated Synagogues of the Witwatersrand PAUL LAZARUS, Wiesbaden, Germany ALGERNON LEE, New York ARTHUR J. LELYVELD, Omaha, Neb. JACOB LESTSCHINSKY, New York RUDOLF LESZYNSKY, Tel-Aviv IRVING M. LEVEY, Brockton, Mass. Rabbi, Temple Israel SAMUEL J. LEVINSON, Brooklyn Rabbi, Temple Beth Emeth FELIX A. LEVY, Chicago Rabbi, Congregation Emanuel SALOMON HUGO LIEBEN, Prague SIMON MILLER, Yonkers, N. Y. ROBERT A. MILLIKAN, Pasadena, Cal. ALBERT G. MINDA, Minneapolis, Minn. JACOB S. MINKIN, New York Rabbi and Author HENRY MONTOR, New York Executive Director, United Palestine LEOPOLD MOSES, Palestine Museum Curator and Author LEON NEMOY, New Haven, Conn. Continued from preceding page CHRIS PHOSKOS, New York DAVID DE SOLA POOL, New York BERNARD POSTAL, Washington, D. C. SAMUEL RAPPAPORT, Vienna JOSEPH RAUCH, Louisville, Ky. VICTOR E. REICHERT, Cincinnati PAUL RIEGER (deceased) LOUIS ROSENBERG, Winnipeg NEWMAN H. ROSENTHAL, Melbourne, Communal Leader CHARLES A. RUBENSTEIN, New York IRA E. SANDERS, Little Rock, Ark. NICHOLAS SARGOLOGOS, New York ISRAEL SCHAPIRO, Washington, D. C. HENRIETTA SCHMERLER (deceased) CHAIM SCHNEID, Palestine KARL SCHWARZ, Palestine Art Historian, Former Custodian of the SIMON SEGAL, New York LEO SHPALL, New York ABRAHAM SHUSTERMAN, Baltimore WILLIAM STEIN, Tarrytown, N. Y. MEIER STEINGLASS, New York J. W. F. STOPPELMAN, New York SIDNEY S. TEDESCHE, Brooklyn FELIX A. THEILHABER, Palestine SCHULIM ABI TODOS (deceased) BENJAMIN VEIT, New York BRUNO WALTER, New York JOSEPH WARREN, Lowell, Mass. HERBERT WEINSTOCK, New York ROBERT WELTSCH, Jerusalem M. DONALD WHYTE, New York MAX WIENER, Cincinnati JONAH B. WISE, New York SIEGFRIED WOLFF (deceased) Former Attorney and Author GEORGE B. WRIGHT, New York Research Worker LEAH R. C. YOFFIE, Chapel Hill, N. C. ISRAEL ZOLLER, Trieste Proper Names, and Abbreviations HE following general rules will aid the reader in con Tsulting these pages: TRANSLITERATION. In transliterating from languages that do not employ the Roman alphabet, our aim has been to approximate the phonetic sound of the words for the benefit of the reader who does not understand such languages. It is assumed that the scholar will have no trouble recognizing the words in any case, while the lay reader is apt to be confused by special distinguishing signs. In the case of Hebrew and Yiddish, transliteration has been preferred throughout, the only exceptions being instances where reproduction of the Hebrew letters may be essential to the comprehension of the article. Hebrew has been transliterated in accordance with the rules adopted by the Joint Committee of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, the Hebrew Union College, Central Conference of American Rabbis, and National Council for Jewish Education. We have, however, made two exceptions: ch instead of kh, to represent the aspirate Kaf, and tz instead of z, to represent Tzade. In addition, Hebrew words have been transliterated in their entirety, without the use of hyphens, while a reduplication of letters has been reduced to a minimum. (See chart on pp. 202-3 for the transliteration of consonants. For vowels see Volume 10). Yiddish is transliterated (phonetically) with special care to distinguish its spelling from that of German. Thus sh is used instead of sch, and fun instead of von. SPELLING OF NAMES. In all instances where the individual signs his name in Roman letters, the name is spelled precisely as he himself gives it, e.g. Chaim, Jakob, Zacharias. If, however, the person wrote in Hebrew, Russian or Yiddish, the name is recorded according to our rules of transliteration-unless it happens to be Biblical. In the latter event, the spelling adopted by the Jewish Publication Society of America is the criterion followed. CITATIONS. When given in English, citations from the Bible conform to the version published by the Jewish Publication Society of America. The number before the colon indicates the chapter; the number following, the verse (Gen. 1:8-10; Isa. 23:14). Tractates of the Babylonian Talmud are given by their names, by page and column, according to standard usage (Taan. 30a). The Palestinian Talmud is indicated by prefixing Yer. (Yerushalmi); page and column are designated according to the Krotoschin edition. But chapter and Halachah are cited for the guidance of readers who have no access to this edition (Yer. B.B. 5:2, 15b). Mishnah citations give chapter and verse in the same form as citations from the Bible. In citing the Midrash, we use the more readily understandable form of Midrash Genesis, Midrash Exodus, etc., rather than Hebrew terms that require explanation (Bereshith Rabbah, Shemoth Rabbah, etc.). Classical works of Jewish literature are cited, wherever possible, by standard editions and pages. LITERATURE. The bibliography, or literature, given at the end of articles is furnished primarily to enable the interested reader to learn more about any given subject than space limits of the article permit. It is authoritative throughout, yet no complete bibliography has been attempted since many of the sources contain no more than has been adduced in the article itself, while others, especially of foreign tongue, may tend to confuse rather than help. Standard reference sources, such as encyclopedias, Konversationslexika, biographical collections and literary catalogues, are ordinarily omitted on the assumption that the student will consult them automatically when in need of collateral data. Preference has been given to reference works in English. Books and periodicals have not been included where investigation has shown that they are not easily available to the reader. TITLES: In determining titles for the articles, care has been taken to choose such names and terms as are likely to be most familiar to those consulting our pages. Individuals of the modern era are entered under their family names. For the ancient and medieval periods, where the usual form is A ben (or ibn) B, the listing will be found under the first name, e.g. Aaron ben Elijah. Where, however, ben or ibn is part of the family name (as in the case of Ben Zeeb, or Ibn Tibbon), the person in question is listed under the family name, e.g., Ibn Tibbon, Judah-not Judah ibn Tibbon. The general order of arrangement of titles embodying names follows: (1) single names, c.g. Abraham; (2) titles containing the name of the individual, e.g. Abraham, Apocalypse of; (3) titles representing individuals listed by their first names, e.g. Abraham bar Hiyya Hanasi; (4) titles listed by family names, e.g. Abraham, Abraham. The words of and the are disregarded, but not bar, ben or ibn. CROSS REFERENCES. Special care has been taken to assist the reader by extensive cross-references, so that information desired may be obtained with the least amount of effort. The See also paragraphs at the conclusion of articles (always present in general subjects) will aid the reader in securing additional details on the subjects under examination or on kindred topics. ABBREVIATIONS. Essential abbreviations employed throughout the encyclopedia include-b. (born), d. (died), cent. (century), ed. (edition), edit. (edited by), trans. (translated by). A list of abbreviations pertaining to the Biblical references follows: |