have long since perished. Still, as we examine the contents, we conclude that there was a rude type of architecture, even in the most ancient, and a more perfect type in the modern heaps. A study of the relics contained in them reveals the fact that primitive man was a fisherman, as well as a hunter, for a large number of the remains of shellfish and the bones of wild animals are found in them, as well as many fishhooks, stone spear-heads, and other relics. That he was already a fisherman and hunter is shown by the pictographs and carvings found in the caves of Europe, for there are many figures of seals, dolphins, eels, fish, and occasionally of harpoons; also, the reindeer, the wild horse, and the ox, with the hunter in the midst of the animals.

These shell heaps at the North continued to be occupied by fishermen, and the people remained in about the same condition, dwelling in their rude huts and drawing their subsistence from the sea, using implements of stone, wood, and bone; while the people at the South advanced from the condition of fishermen and hunters to that of agriculturists, their housebuilding keeping pace with their progress in other respects. In fact, we find the Stone Age continued at the North, after the Bronze Age appeared at the South.

The kitchen middens have been found in Terra del Fuego, Brazil, in Japan near Omori, between Yokohama and Tokio, and in the Andaman Islands. Mr. Archibald Blair says:

The natives of the Great Andaman Island are probably in the rudest state of any rational animals which are to be found; both sexes go perfectly naked; have no other houses than small huts or sheds, about four feet high. They depend principally on shell fish for their subsistance. Their greatest stretch of ingenuity appears in the construction of their bows, arrows, fish gigs, and small nets The only appearance of their civilization is their being formed into small societies and some attention being paid to a chief, who, with his family, are generally painted red.*

The art of navigation may be supposed to have been inaugurated at the time these kitchen middens were formed and continued throughout the whole period. Probably boat building continued to improve even while the people were fishermen, at least we find some of the best models of the boats on the Northwest coast, in the same region where shell heaps are numerous. As a general rule, we may say that the houses kept pace with the boats, the people improved in both respects. We find, also, village life advancing and the organization of society improved. There is a contrast between fishing and hunting in this respect. Hunting demands large tracts of country and frequent change of habitation, the same as does the pursuit of cattle breeding. On the other hand, fishing, like agriculture, leads naturally to a sedentary life and favors the village organization. As a matter of fact, we find that the art of carving advanced among the fishermen of the North

See "Indian Antiquary," December, "sy, page 325.

west coast more rapidly than among the Cliff-Dwellers and Pueblos of the interior, and the coveniences and comforts of home life were quite equal to those enjoyed by people who had long been agriculturalists; in fact, there are settlements on the coast of Florida which present an immense quantity of shells, which were made to protect embankments and earthworks, behind which whole villages were erected, a marvelous stage of

MODERN KLAMATH DWELLING.

architecture and of engineering being manifest in them. We have only to refer to the discoveries made by Mr. Frank H. Cushing on the islands, to show that the fishermen here, were quite as far advanced as the Lakedescription of these

Dwellers were in Europe. We retain the for another time. They only call to mind the fact that people make advancement according to their employments, as well as their surroundings. Fishermen and sea-faring people are better navigators and build better boats than agriculturists.

Perhaps the best place for the study of kitchen middens and the architecture exhibited by them, is to be found along the Pacific coast from California to Oregon and further north. Here we find the kit

chen middens connected with harbors and canals on the coast, with villages on the mesas or rocks above the coast, with the ancient mines, where ollas and stone vessels were secured, which are so numerous in California. There are not many remains of boats, but there are many sites of vil

lages that are marked by a great number of relics. An interesting place for the study of kitchen middens is found on the coast of California, on the islands of San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Catalina, and others. The Island of Santa Catalina was discovered by Cabrillo in 1542, and belongs to James Lick. It was explored by Mr. Schumacher in 1875, and described by him in the Bulletin of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey, Vol. III.

It appears from his account that the kitchen middens of

California were connected with pueblos and of a comparatively modern date, and differ from the ordinary kitchen middens of Europe, which are supposed to be very ancient. There are, however, localities where remains of houses of a primitive type were discovered. Mr. Schumacher says:

We found in a mound whale bones, indicating the last resting place of those that accumulated the kitchen stuff, but by digging into it we found the ribs of whales to be the remains of houses, rather than the marks of graves. They were planted in a circle and their natural curve so adjusted as to form the frame of a hut, in shape not unlike a bee hive, which was in some instances quite well preserved.*

Mr. Schumacher explored kitchen middens on the coast of Oregon which seemed to be the site of an old deserted Indian town, the kitchen refuse consisting of all kinds of shells and a great many bones of elk and deer, and averaging about eight feet in depth. Houses were discovered which resembled those occupied by Klamath Indians.

We reproduce two cuts from Mr. Schumacher's report as an illustration of the manner of constructing huts among the Klamath Indians; also, a cut which represents the depressions in the shell heaps, caused by the huts which have been destroyed. There are representations in the report of harbors along the coast, which were suitable for canoes and boats, the entrance to them being very narrow; but the harbor itself afforded protection for the boats. Mr. Schumacher says:

The houses we examined were square, that is to say, the subterranean part reached to a depth of about four feet below the surface, and measur ing variously from six to ten feet square. The casing of the excavation consisted of boards, arranged horizontally, contrary to the vertical position in the houses of the present Klamath Indians, and were kept in place by posts along the front. The general impression which the traces of an old aboriginal town-site makes is that of a group of huge mole-hills inverted, or sunk toa small rim at its base. Although the excavation was found to be square the remaining cavities, always shallow, and hardly more than three feet deep, were circular, which is attributed to the circular embankment that still surrounds it, and to the natural action of the elements in filling up a depression in loose ground. No doubt, the superstructure of the hut was of a circular shape, corresponding to the remaining embankment, and was probably placed in such a manner as to meet conically, and was covered with earth, &c. The fire place, we find on one side of the floor, in a small excavation, and the smoke escaped through a draft passage.

We find, among the house sites, a few well-preserved ones, exceptionally, with square embankment, but they are, no doubt, of recent date, and a modification between an aboriginal hut and a white man's shanty, such as we had occasion to witness among the present Klamaths at the mouth of the Klamath River. One of which I show in a sketch, as, also, an inner view, a plan, and a section. The inner view shows the depression, which is in this case pentagonal, incased by boards placed horizontally, with a fire place in the centre. The excavation is reached by a notched board, after entering the house through a circular door near the ground.

See "Bulletin U S. Geological-Geographical Survey," Vol. III, p. 47.

+ See "Researches in Kjok ermoddings and Graves of a Former Population," pp. 27-30.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL NOTES.

BY ALEXANDER F. CHAMBERLAIN.

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HUMAN ACTIVITIES. Under the title "L'Activité de l'Homme" (Paris, 1898, p. 261), W. Tenicheff, the author of a previous work on the "Activity of Animals," publishes an interesting volume, which, however, lacks something, from the absence of personal knowledge of primitive peoples. The author first elaborates his philosophy of human activity (pp. 23144) and then illustrates it from the Eskimo, to a study of whose activity the rest of the book is devoted. Activity is discussed under the following heads: distinctive physical traits; environment in relation to individuals or classes; history; folklife; social dispositions, customs, and laws, relations of fellowcitizens; beliefs, knowledge, language, letters, and arts; family, life-habits; sex-relations; children, birth, education, instruction, preparation for independent life; obstacles to life and their effects. Tenicheff treats of the Eskime in the period anterior to European influence, his authorities being chiefly Kranz and Klutschak. The author holds that the increase of our knowledge of how men and women act under given circumstances is of great importance to statesmen, and will, moreover, “weaken the influence of the morbid doctrines of Schopenhauer, Hartmann, Tolstoi, and in general of all thinkers who set forth ideas. hostile to life." Perhaps only a Russian could write this book.

THE PUEBLO CHILD.-The Education of the Pueblo Child, A Study in Arrested Development," by Frank Clarence Spencer, forms Vol. VII., No. 1, of the "Columbia University Contributions to Philosophy, Psychology, and Education (New York, 1899, p. 97). The four chapters of the work deal with: "Geography and History of the Land of the Pueblos; Social and Industrial Life of the Pueblos; Institutional Life of the Pueblos; Education of the Pueblo Child." From personal investigation and study of the literature of the Pueblos Dr. Spencer establishes the thesis that the peculiar civilization of the Pueblos, is "a product of their environmental condition," and that the educational methods (the apprentice system in particular) employed by these Indians are "exactly suited to perpetuate a static condition." Practically no serious changes have taken place in the social and industrial life of these people for at least 360 years, and probably none have occurred for a much longer period than that. Priest-control, the apprentice-system, with the almost entire suppression of invention to the advantage of imitation, together with environmental conditions, have produced in the

child a practical "arrest of development," the net result of which is to perpetuate the "good old way." In the industrial, moral, and religious spheres the method of instruction is the same, aiming at "an exact reproduction of the skill or wisdom in the possession of the tribe by generation after generation. Mr. Spencer's study is a valuable contribution to the literature of the psychology of primitive peoples and one of the few good treatises on primitive education we possess.

SOUTH AFRICAN ARCHEOLOGY. In the Journal of the Anthropological Institute (London), for February May, 1899 (New Series, Vol. I., pp. 258-272), Mr. G. Leith, of Pretoria, writes about "Caves, shell-mounds and stone implements of South Africa." Caves on the Stormberg at Mossel Bay, at East London; shell-mounds on the South coast; large stone implements near Cape St. Blaize; stone implements from the Transvaal, and various special implements are described. According to Mr. Leith," the Bushman represents Neolithic man in South Africa, and any investigation into the habits of prehistoric races in South Africa should begin with him and work backwards.” He also considers that "the existence of barbed stone arrowheads in South Africa is not sufficiently established." In the mountain haunts of the Bushman the characteristic implement is the "scraper," a score of which are to be found, as against a single knife-shaped implement or arrow tip. Scrapers in handles are rare, if present at all. Mullers, pounding, hammering and digging stones, sharp-edged ring stones, rimmers, etc., are also found. With shell mounds "the coast from Cape St. Blaize to Great Brak River is literally dotted."

"Eoliths," implements of the plateau gravels of the Transvaal, are thought to be "cognates of the implements discovered in the plateau gravels of Kent, in England." Correspondents of the American "turtle backs" were also found by Mr. Leith. In the discussion on this paper Mr. W. Y. Campbell maintained that "mining in Rhodesia was anywhere up to 2,000 to 3,000 years old," but that "the rough-stone dépôts of the mining districts of Monomatapa were other than dépôts and head kraals of a ruling and most probably Bantu race, he could not admit." This conclusion he based upon "the multiplied evidence obtained in some 2,000 miles of travel in Monomatapa, now Golden Rhodesia."

VEI ALPHABET-In L'Anthropologie (Vol. X., 1859, pp. 129-151, 294-314), M. Maurice Delafosse, formerly French consular agent at Monrovia in Liberia, has an interesting article on "The Vei, their Language and their System of Writing." This West African people, of Mandingo stock, occupy a terriory some 50 by 75 miles in extent, between the rivers Soulimah and HalfCape Mount. The alphabet possessed by these people has been long considered an evidence of their intellectual superiority over