ANCIENT PERU-ITS PEOPLE AND ITS MONUMENTS.

Among the grandest of these, both in its immediate and ulterior results, was the discovery of America in the fifteenth century. From that period, it has justly been observed, we may date the rise of that mental energy and physical enterprise which has since worked so wonderful changes in the condition of the human race. To the nations of Europe, then slowly rousing from their lethargic sleep of centuries, it gave a new and powerful impulse. It called into play the strongest incentives to human action; love of adven-people-here roaming in savage freedom, and ture, ambition, and avarice, all contributed to direct the attention and hopes of men to America. Thither flocked the boldest and most ad

venturous spirits of Europe, and half a century of startling events lifted the vail of night from a vast continent, unsurpassed in the extent and variety of its resources, abounding with treasures, and occupied by a new and strange

there organized into nationalities rivaling, in their barbaric magnificence, the splendors of the Oriental world, far advanced in the arts, living

in large cities, constructing vast works of pub- | three grand denominations-the AYMARaes, the lic utility, and sustaining comprehensive and CHINCHAS, and the HUANCAS. imposing systems of religion and government. The first of these, or the Aymaraes, constiAmong these nations, two were pre-eminently tuted the governing stock, the race of the Indistinguished for the extent of their territories cas, or Peruvian emperors. They occupied the and their superior development: the Aztecs heights of Peru and Bolivia, elevated twelve occupying the high plateau of Mexico, and the thousand feet above the sea, and seem to have Peruvians spreading themselves among the val- made the first and most decided advances in the leys and over the slopes of the Andes, in Peru. arts and institutions of civilization. The second, The early chroniclers have almost exhausted or Chinchas, occupied the coast of the Pacific their rich and glowing language in describing from Tumbes to the desert of Atacama, extendthe splendors of the empires of Atahualpa and ing inward to the base of the Cordilleras. The Montezuma; and the eloquent pen of Prescott third, or Huancas, which in respect of numbers has traced the story of their conquest and over- exceeded either of the others, were scattered throw-an episode, in the history of the world, over the region comprehended between the Corwhich surpasses romance in the marvelousness dilleras and the Andes, between the Chinchas of its details, and in its deep and tragic interest. and Aymaraes. Lying next to the latter, they The imagination is bewildered in following the were the first subjected to their domination. It rapid and bloody steps of Cortez and Pizarro, thus appears that Peru offers, in its internal whose adventurous spirits were neither over-history, another illustration of the axiom, that awed by obstacles nor dampened by reverses: the most vigorous nations, both in respect of and in the contemplation of their deeds we almost lose sight of the extraordinary people against whom they directed the force of their invincible arms. The subversion of these empires was so sudden and complete, that the chroniclers who followed the Spanish armies had scarcely time to record the manners and habits of their people under their more obvious and superficial aspects-none to devote to the investigation of the principles of their social and civil organizations, and the elucidation of their primitive history. To discover these principles, and clear up the mists which rest upon their origin and development, have been reserved for the labors of the student and archæologist in later times these patient investigators who, from tangled traditions, imperfect records, and crumbling monuments, shall reconstruct the history, and vindicate the claims of these nations to a place beside the proudest of those which have disappeared from the earth, but whose deeds make up the story of the past, and whose memory shall endure to the end of time.

physical organization and intellect, are those who dwell in the more elevated and rugged portions of the earth, where the destitution of nature imposes the necessity of exertion as the price of human existence. The history of Peru is, therefore, the history of the Aymaraes—the conquerors, rulers, and civilizers of the other stocks; and of this race, the family of the Incas was the head and directing intelligence.

ORIGIN OF THE PERUVIANS.

The origin of the Peruvians, or rather of the Aymaraes, is involved in obscurity, but according to their traditions, there was a time when they were broken up into independent tribes, warring constantly against each other, and sunk in the lowest depths of barbarism. From this deplorable condition they were rescued by their tutelary divinity, the Sun, who sent down his own children to reform and instruct them. These were Manco Capac and his sister and wife, Mamá Ocllo Huáco. Starting from the Lake of Titicaca, this party journeyed northward until they reached the spot where the city of Cuzco, When the Spaniards reached Peru, the em- which afterward became the capital of the Inca pire of the Incas extended from the equator empire, now stands. Here they collected tosouthward over 37 degrees of latitude, and em-gether the neighboring savage hordes, and while braced not only the western slope of the Andes, but included that stupendous mountain-chain, and spread down its eastern declivities to those broad alluvions traversed by the Amazon, the Orinoco, and their gigantic tributaries, which intervene between the Andes and the sea. though this vast empire was under a single system of laws, and formed, under its political aspect, a homogeneous nationality, yet its people were not of a single stock, but an aggregation of distinct families, with strongly-marked physical differences. These families had once constituted separate tribes, or nations, but had been reduced to the relations in which they were found, by an astute and profound system of policy, perhaps never equaled in its comprehensiveness and capacity for expansion, except by that under which we ourselves exist. Recent investigators have grouped these families under

Al

Manco Capac taught the men agriculture and the useful arts, and inspired them with ideas of social and civil organization, Mamá Oello instructed the women to spin and weave, and inculcated modesty, grace, and the domestic virtues. From this celestial pair sprung the imperial line of the Incas, who, in virtue of their descent, were both the high priests of religion and the heads of the state.

In this tradition we trace only another version of the story of their civilization common to all primitive nations, and of that imposture of a celestial relationship, whereby designing rulers and cunning priests have sought to secure their ascendency among men, and which is still perpetuated in the doctrine of the "divine right" of kings. Manco Capac is the almost exact counterpart of the Chinese Fohi, the Hindoo Buddha, the terrestrial Osiris of Egypt, the terres

trial Odin of Scandinavia, of Jutzalcoatl in Mex- | the supreme arbiter of all that breathed in the ico, Votan in Central America, and Bochica air or moved in the waters. "The very birds among the Muyscas of Colombia. Among all suspend their flight when I command them," was these early nations, the blessings of civilization the vaunting exclamation of Atahullpa to the were supposed to have been conferred directly Spaniards. from Heaven, through the agency of beings half human, half divine, who were the chosen instruments of God in his communications with men. They appear suddenly, and, after a life of usefulness, often disappear mysteriously, or else become the founders of a line of rulers, concentrating intain in war, absolute sovereign in peace, and the themselves the kingly and sacerdotal power.

Besides, as we have already said, the monarch of Peru was considered as son of the Sun, and descended in right line from Manco Capac, was the high priest and oracle of religion. Uniting the legislative and executive power, chief cap

venerated pontiff of religion, he realized in himself the union of Pope and Emperor; and, with better reason than Louis XIV., might exclaim, "I am the State!" Clothed with such dignity and power, he received the blindest obedience from his subjects; his person was sacred, his body after death was regarded with pious veneration, and his memory religiously respected. The highest magnates of the empire could not appear shod in his presence, and when they had their audiences, were obliged to come bowing their bodies, and

But notwithstanding this tradition, there are many reasons for believing that, before the arrival of Manco Capac, the natives of Peru had reached a degree of cultivation, far advanced from barbarism. It will appear, as we proceed, that the most imposing monuments of Peru antedate the Inca empire, and that in the extension of that empire nations were brought under its rule, which were, to a certain degree, civilized, and in arts and government entitled to a respectable rank. And it may not unreasonably be sus-bearing a light load on their shoulders as a sign pected that the story of the extreme barbarism in which Manco Capac found the original inhabitants of the country, was an exaggeration of the Incas, to magnify the merit of the reformation which they had effected, and augment the gratitude of their subjects.

of their submission. The people themselves were not allowed even to approach the street in which the royal palace was situated, except with bare feet and uncovered heads.

Yet, if we may believe the early historians, the Incas were eminently paternal in their government, and, without an exception, animated by the tenderest regard for their subjects, among whom they were accustomed to mix, in order to correct abuses, and ameliorate the condition of the inferior classes. They presided at certain religious festivals, and on these occasions were accustomed to give banquets to their nobles and

At first the rule of Manco Capac was limited to a few leagues around Cuzco, but by alliances and conquests it was gradually extended, until | under Huayna Capac, it spread over forty degrees of latitude, and reached from the Pacific, southeast, to the pampas of Tucuman, and northeast to the Ucayali and Marañon. At that time it embraced upward of ten millions of in-chief officers, and to propose and drink the habitants; but the number rapidly diminished after the conquest, until now it is probably less than five millions.

We have no means of determining the period of the appearance of the first Inca; for, notwithstanding their advance in other respects, the Peruvians had never acquired the art of writing, nor made any approach toward it, beyond their rude quippus, or knotted cords, of which we shall hereafter have occasion to speak. This period, nevertheless, has been placed about four centuries before the arrival of the Spaniards, in the year 1021. Yet writers have not been wanting, who have carried back the origin of the empire to the earliest assignable date, consistent with the received chronology, and placed the advent of Manco Capac within five hundred years of the flood.

THE INCAS.

The authority of the Peruvian monarchs was absolute; their will was the supreme law; they had no council of state, no ministers, nor institutions limiting the royal prerogative; and, although they sometimes consulted with their aged and more experienced subjects, it was from considerations of utility, and not in conformity with any organic law of the empire. The Inca held in his hand the lives and property of his vassals, and was regarded throughout his dominions as

healths of those whose conduct had inspired their esteem, or whose services commended them to distinction.

In common with the Oriental monarchs the Inca possessed an unlimited number of concubines, in some instances exceeding seven hundred, but he had only one legitimate wife, called coya, whose eldest son was heir to the throne. By a singular rule the coya was required to be the sister of the Inca. This incest, so repugnant to our notions of morality, by the concentration of blood in a single line, gave to the imperial family a peculiar physiognomy, which contributed still further to impress the people with the idea of their distinct and supernatural origin. The aristocracy of Peru consisted of five orders:

1. Incas, in whose veins flowed the royal blood, and who were derived from the same stock with the sovereign himself.

2. Incas by privilege; that is to say, the descendants of the principal vassals of the first Inca, to whom was conceded the right of using this title.

3. The heads of families, distinguished for their riches, valor, learning, or the merits of their ancestors.

4. Such as were invested with the first dignities and offices, civil and military.

5. The priests, and amautes, or learned men. The youths of royal blood were carefully educated by the amautes or wise men, and prepared for the huaracu, an order analogous to that of knighthood in the middle ages. At the age of sixteen they were rigorously examined in Cuzco, in all that pertained to the art of war and government, and their capacities for endurance tested by fasts, and the severest privations. If they passed through these creditably, they were presented to the Inca, who bored their ears, and inserted in them golden rings, which were increased in size as they advanced in rank, until the distension of the cartilage became a positive deformity. It was not, however, so regarded by the Peruvians, with whom it passed as a mark of distinction. The Spaniards gave the name of Orejones, Big-ears, to those thus decorated.

The aspirants thus honored next turned to the nearest relative of the sovereign, who, unloosing the common sandals which they wore, dressed their feet in others of more costly materials. The neophyte was then invested with the girdle of manhood; on his head was placed a garland of flowers, emblematic of the gentle virtues which would through life be his brightest ornaments; in his hands were placed the arms which he was in future to wield in the service of his country; and the ceremony was complete as regarded the generality of the youths. At this stage of the proceedings, however, the heir to the throne, who until then was in nowise distinguished from his comrades, was further invested with a headdress, forming his peculiar insignia, and received the homage of the whole of the Inca nobility, who knelt at his feet and recognized him as their future sovereign. The whole assembly then proceeded to the great square of the city, where the public rejoicings began, and where the night was spent with dancing, music, feasting, and drinking.

CIVIL ORGANIZATION.

to carry out the minutest details of government. All were obliged, under the severest penalties, to make monthly reports to the officers above them, who in turn reported to their superiors, so that the Inca received monthly from his viceroys an abstract of all that had passed in his dominions.

In this organization we may trace some of the ideas which in our days have been denominated socialistic. Those ideas, however, were more clearly developed in the social organization of the Peruvians, and in their regulations concerning property. The right of the individual to a portion of the earth sufficient to support life, was as clearly recognized as his right to breathe the air of heaven. All lands capable of cultivation were divided into three parts; one pertained to the Sun, or the support of religion, another to the Inca, and the third to the people at large. Each Peruvian received a portion of land, called a topu, which was sufficient to produce the maize necessary for the support of a married man, without children. At the birth of a son he received another topu, and for each daughter half a topu. When the son married he received from his father the topu set apart for him at his birth. In the working of the lands the same wise provision was exercised. First the lands belonging to the protecting divinity were put under cultivation, and next those belonging to the old men, the sick, to widows and orphans, and to soldiers engaged in active service. These were worked by the sections in common, and after they were finished each individual was permitted to attend to his own land, but under the obligation to aid his neighbor who might be burthened with a large family-a fraternal custom which is still perpetuated among the Indians of Peru. After this the lands of the chiefs were planted, and finally those of the Inca, by the whole nation, with great ceremony, songs, and general rejoicings. If any one lacked seed he was supplied from the royal depositories.

All of the people, excepting the chiefs, officers, priests, and soldiers, from the age of twenty-five to fifty, were regarded as tributaries. Their tribute, however, consisted only in personal service. The field laborer worked a certain number of days on the lands of the Sun and the Inca; the silversmith a certain number in the fabrication of vases and idols for the temples; the pot

Nothing could be more complete than the civil organization of the Incas. The city of Cuzco, called by a name which signified that it was the centre not only of the kingdom but of the world, was in itself an epitome of the empire. In common with the country at large, it was divided into four quarters, from which great roads led off, North, East, South, and West. Its inhabitants were required to take up their abode inter in making vessels of clay for the public use the quarters corresponding with the direction of and that of the court; and the members of the their native provinces, and were then again ar- other trades each in his department. The maranged in localities to correspond with the rela-terials were furnished by the state, and the tions of these provinces to each other. Each of workman while thus employed was supported the four grand divisions of the empire was under at the public expense. All the grand works of the government of a viceroy, and its inhabitants general utility in the empire, the royal roads, were divided into groups of 10,000 souls, each the aqueducts, and bridges, as also the temples with its native chief and Inca governor. These of the Sun, and the palaces of the Incas, were groups were still further subdivided into thou-constructed in this manner. sands, hundreds, and tens, with their appropriate heads, whose duty it was to execute the orders of their superior, make known the wants of their people, ferret out crime and accuse offenders, register marriages, births, and deaths-in short,

The Peruvian youth were obliged to follow the professions of their fathers, nor were the sons of plebeians allowed to receive an education superior to their condition in life. The Indian could not change his residence without the