are

now

Zinzendorf and the Moravians, took great | Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, and the pains to acquire the Indian languages, and Seminoles of Florida, all received missionto teach them the rudiments of science and aries and teachers, and made fair progress religion, they were only successful when in learning and civilization. George Guest, they could gather the wandering tribes into a Cherokee, invented an alphabet, and repermanent settlements,-missions, the Jesuit duced the language of his tribe to writing. Fathers called them, and then erecting the But the rapid influx of white settlers into requisite churches and school-houses, accus- the Gulf States, and their jealousy of these tom them to a fixed home. In New Mexico, peaceful Indian tribes led to peremptory in Texas, in California and Oregon, the demands for their expatriation to lands beJesuit Missionaries planted many of these yond the Mississippi. This removal seemed missions, some of which are still in exist- unjust at the time, and was carried out with ence. The education imparted, except in unnecessary harshness and hardships, but the arts of civilized life, was not extensive. in the end it proved of great advantage to A few were taught to read and write, most the tribes which were removed, and they of them learned to repeat the prayers of the have formed the nucleus of an Indian terrichurch, and occasionally one of their number torial settlement in which the larger portion more ambitious and intelligent than the rest, of the nomadic tribes of the western plains would receive sufficient education to become have found or will find a home and a perthe curé of a pueblo, or Indian village. In manent settlement. The Cherokees, Creeks, the English colonies the earliest effort and Choctaws have attained to a very refor the instruction of the Indians was made spectable civilization; they have numerous in Virginia in 1618. For this purpose an good schools, some of them of the secondappeal was made to England by the Virginia ary grade, and have entirely abandoned Company, and the Queen (Elizabeth), and their nomadic habits. There many of the nobility and clergy contributed schools, sustained in part by the government to the fund. At Cambridge, Mass., a and in part by the different religious deschool for the instruction of Indian youth nominations, in all the tribes which occupy was founded before Harvard College, and distinct reservations, even though these was in some sense the germ of that first of tribes have not fixed settlements. There American Colleges. In Connecticut, there were in 1871, as nearly as could be ascerwere schools for Indian children and youth tained, 294 schools among the Indians, with as early as 1648 to 1660, at several points, about 300 teachers, and about 8,000 scholas at Farmington, Podunk, Hartford and ars, the total Indian population being estiBranford, and some of these schools were mated at 383,130.* maintained for more than a hundred years. In 1725 there was a school for Mohegans at Very early in the history of the colonies. Norwich, and the education of Samson which afterwards became slave states, there Occum, an Indian, and afterward a preacher, was evident a determination to withhold in the family of Rev. Eleazur Wheelock at both from the slaves and the free people of Lebanon, Conn., in 1743-1750, led to the color all facilities for education; and though founding of Moor's Indian Charity School for a time the instruction of house servants, in 1754, which sixteen years later was who were often allied by blood to their practically merged in Dartmouth College.* masters, was tolerated and sometimes enAbout the beginning of this century sys-couraged by influential people, yet as early tematic efforts were commenced, mostly by as the beginning of this century, in most of the general government, for the instruction the slave states, it was forbidden under penof the Indian tribes within what were then alty of fine and imprisonment to teach a the boundaries of the States. The Iroquois, slave to read or write. This prohibition or Six Nations, who had established themselves on reservations in the State of New the children of a slaveholder often teaching was in some, perhaps in many cases, evaded; York, the fragments of the Orono, Pequot, and Mohegan tribes who remained in Maine and Connecticut, and the considerable tribes of Cherokees, Creeks and Choctaws, who inhabited the northern portions of States, wil be found in Barnard's Special Report on the Dis

See Barnard's History of Education in Connecticut.

*

VIII. SCHOOLS FOR THE AFRICANS AND FREEDMEN.†

* For a more particular account of the attempts to establish schools for the Indians, see Barnard's contributions to the History of Education in the United States STEIGER, 1873. † A special Report on Schools for Colored Children and the educational status of the colored population in the different

trict of Columbia which constitutes Vol. XIX of the American Journal of Education.

was one of constant and intense suffering. At the time of the emancipation of the slaves there must have been in Washington and Georgetown some ten or fifteen of these colored schools. In Delaware, the Friends had had in Wilmington two good schools for colored children since 1840. In Maryland there was a Catholic seminary for colored girls, established in 1831, in connection with the Oblate Sisters of Providence Convent. The Wells school, endowed by a man of color, established in 1835, and some others. In Kentucky, the Berea College, founded in 1858 by Rev. John G. Fee, for the higher education of white and colored youth, was the only institution of its grade in the slave States for colored persons previous to the war.

a favorite slave what they themselves had | rifices were greater, and she passed through been taught, but the law remained on the a fiery trial of persecution, while her life statute books, and was enforced whenever there was any excitement in regard to the slaves. As the free colored people were supposed to be most forward in teaching the slaves, the same prohibition was in many of the States extended to them, and in others the terms of a public opinion which regarded, or professed to regard, the free colored people as nuisances, was invoked to prevent their instruction also. This was generally effected, except in three or four States. In the District of Columbia there have been schools for free negroes in existence constantly from 1807 till the present time, and most of the time two, three, or more at the same time. The first was founded by the efforts of George Bell, aided by Nicholas Franklin and Moses Liverpool. These three men had been slaves but had attained their freedom, but neither of the three could read or write. Yet they built a school-house, and for some years sustained a school. In 1809, or thereabouts two others were started, one by a colored woman, Mrs. Anne Maria Hall, the other by an Englishman, Mr. Henry Potter. In 1818, the free colored people formed an association under the name of "Resolute Beneficial Society," and established a very good school which was sustained for several years. The best of these early schools was one taught by Rev. John F. Cook, a eolored Presbyterian minister, self-educated, but a man of rare ability and talent, who conducted an excellent school-" The Union Seminary "for about twenty years, from 1834 till 1855, and it was maintained by his In Philadelphia the efforts for the educasons, with some intermissions, till 1867. tion of the colored race, of Anthony BenThere were also two or three schools main-ezet in 1750, and subsequently of the tained under the direction of Father Van- Friends in 1770, and of the Pennsylvania loinen and other Catholic priests, taught by colored women of remarkable talent. The Wesleyans had also a seminary from 1833 to 1865. But the most noteworthy of these schools was that founded and conducted from 1851 to 1866 by Miss Myrtilla Miner, a lady of Brookfield, N. Y. This was a seminary of the higher class for colored girls. We have not space to go into the history of this school and her connection with it, but it is sufficient to say that she deserves as much honor, and perhaps even higher consideration than Mary Lyon, the founder of Holyoke Female Seminary. Her devotion to her work was as great, her sac

In the Northern States there were schools for colored children exclusively in many of the large cities. One of these in New York was established in 1704. In 1788 or 1789, the Manumission Society established colored schools which were continued till 1834, when they were merged in those of the Public School Society. In Boston, a colored school was established in 1798, and a public school for colored children in 1800. In Cincinnati they were established as early as 1820. A school of higher grade established there in 1835 evoked a storm of persecution, but was maintained steadily until the public provision for the higher education of colored youth was sufficient to render its further continuance unnecessary.

Abolition Society in 1794, aided and supplemented by other benevolent organizations at a later period, provided for the people of color in that city exceptional advantages of education. In the country the few colored children generally attended the same public schools with the white children, though they were in most cases jealously excluded from the private schools. In the deaf-mute, blind and orphan asylums they were generally admitted on equal terms with white children. But up to 1850, and in some of the Northern States still later, there was so strong a prejudice against giving to the colored people any opportunities for

their bishops, Rev. Dr. D. A. Payne, being President and Professor of Theology. It had in 1871, 176 students of both sexes, and 7 instructors. These three institutions, and Berea College, Ky., were all in existence previous to the war, and their students. were wholly or mainly persons of color. Several other colleges, however, admitted colored students to their classes regularly, and still others occasionally, Oberlin has, since 1836, always had colored students.

higher education that no school for that purpose was tolerated. In 1833, Miss Prudence Crandall, a member of the Society of Friends and a teacher of high reputation, received a young colored girl into her boarding and day-school at Canterbury, Conn., that she might qualify herself to become a teacher to her own race. The girl was not in any way objectionable; she was of pleasing appearance and manners, and of most exemplary conduct, a member of the Congregationalist church in Canterbury. The escape of many who had previously Objection was made by the parents of some been slaves from their masters in the first of the white children attending this school, year of the war, and the Proclamation of and Miss Crandall, firm in her principles, Emancipation in January, 1863, soon dedetermined to make it a test question, and, monstrated the necessity of furnishing edutherefore, gave notice of the opening of a cational advantages to these new citizens. school for colored girls. This was soon The Freedmen, as the emancipated slaves largely attended, but the people of that and were now called, were clamorous for eleadjacent towns were greatly excited in con- mentary education. They flocked to the sequence, and an influential citizen, afterward schools which the various philanthropic and a member of Congress, and Judge of the religious societies established for their inUnited State District Court, procured the struction, in great numbers, and though passage of a law by the legislature in 1833 among the adults, whose minds had been which prohibited such a school, under pen- hitherto wholly untrained, progress was very alty of heavy fine or imprisonment. Under slow, yet by dint of the most undaunted this law Miss Crandall was arrested, com- perseverance, great numbers learned to mitted to the Windham County jail, and read, and the colored children, in most subsequently tried; the first time the jury cases, proved apt scholars. Great hostility disagreed; the second, on Judge Daggett's was manifested toward these schools in charge, she was convicted, but an appeal the late slave States by a class of being taken to the Supreme Court of Errors the white population, who were for the action was quashed. Her school was, however, broken up by the constant assaults the teacher, scholars, and the

made on
school building.

the most part themselves illiterate, and jealous of the improvement of the blacks; and many school-houses were burned, and some teachers as well as a considerable In 1850, Avery College, founded by number of the pupils were beaten, wounded Rev. Charles Avery, was opened at Alle- or killed. But this opposition eventually ghany City, Penn., as a collegiate and died away, and now the education of the academical school for persons of color colored children goes on without let or of both sexes. It has about 75 students, is hindrance. The amount expended by the well endowed, and has an efficient faculty. various benevolent societies in the mainLincoln University at Oxford, Chester tenance of these schools can only be stated County, Penn., originally called Ashmun approximately. In the ten years ending Institute, was founded in 1854 by the Pres- October, 1871, the American Missionary bytery of Newcastle, Pa., for the scientific, Association reported an expenditure for this classsical and theological education of young purpose of $1,563,756.99. The Freedmen's men of color. It was not opened till Dec. Aid Society of Cincinnati, before it was 31, 1856, and had in 1871, 158 students. merged in the American Missionary AssoIt is moderately well endowed. Wilber-ciation, $134,340.53, beside large amounts force University near Xenia, Ohio, founded of clothing; the General Assembly of the in 1856 as a collegiate institution for young Presbyterian Church, for five years ending men of color by the Cincinnati Conference May 1, 1872, $220,704; the American of the Methodist Episcopal Church, was by that conference transferred to the African Methodist Episcopal Church, and is now sustained by the people of color, one of

Baptist Free Mission Society, from 1862 to 1870, when its organization ceased, about $165,000; the American Baptist Home Mission Society, in all about $260,000; the

Unitarian Association, directly and through it for colored schools. Mr. Peabody, who the Zion Methodist Church, over $100,000; must rank as the greatest benefactor to the Methodist Episcopal Church, about education in ancient or modern times, and $110,000; the Friends, directly and indi- whose large gifts to other objects are stated rectly, over $150,000 (including a con- more at length elsewhere in this volume, siderable amount of supplies and clothing); visited the United States in 1866, just after the Protestant Episcopal Church, not far the close of the war, and deeply impressed from $80,000. The Freedmen's Department with the condition of the Southern States of the Western Sanitary Commisson also and the great need of greater facilities for expended large sums in aid of these schools elementary and secondary education, then in the Mississippi Valley. The Freedmen's resolved to devote a portion of his large Bureau, from May 20, 1865 to October, fortune for this purpose. Having matured 1871, expended in cash on these schools his plans, he placed in the hands of trustees $4,711,235.04, and in other things than bonds and securities of the value of cash $1,551,276.22. The Catholics have $2,000,000, the interest and a portion of also expended very considerable sums for the principal of which, if necessary, was to the establishment of schools for freedmen, be used for the promotion of education in and have organized a system of schools for the South without regard to race or color. colored children; and there have been many Rev. Barnas Sears, D.D., LL.D., formerly private enterprises sustained by individual Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of contributions, which are not reported. Tak- Education, and at this time President of ing into the account all these sums, together Brown University, was selected by the with what had been done by the Freed- trustees, with Mr. Peabody's approval, to men's Bureau, the expenditure for the educa- apply this large sum, and has done so tion of freedmen (including a small amount with great wisdom and fairness. In 1869, for refugees and poor whites) has exceeded Mr. Peabody again visited the country, and nine millions. This is aside from the en- was so much gratified at the good accomdowment which has been given generally plished by his gift, that he added $1,400,000 by bequest to several schools of higher more to it. The revenue from this fund, education for colored youth-such as the somewhat more than $200,000 per annum, Howard University at Washington, Lincoln is divided among the schools of the SouthUniversity at Oxford, Va., Leland and ern States in such a way as to encourage Straight Universities. at New Orleans, them to greater exertions, and to confer a Alcorn University at Jackson, Miss., Fisk lasting benefit on the communities upon University, Nashville, Tenn., the Hampton which it is bestowed. Normal and Agricultural Institute at Hampton Roads, Va., and Atlanta University, Atlanta, Georgia. There are in all over twenty of these schools of higher education for young men of color; some of them aiming to give substantially the ordinary college course, others only a limited English and theological course to train those who are expecting to preach to their own race either here or in Africa. The Howard University at Washington has a theological, medical, and law school connected with it. It is but slenderly endowed, $100,000 only being raised for endowment purposes, though it receives in addition to tuition fees considerable sums in annual subscriptions.

The munificent fund for the promotion of education in the South presented by the late George Peabody, the noblest gift ever made by one man to popular education, properly comes under consideration here, as in some of the States grants are made from

IX. CHURCH AND DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS.

In discussing the character and progress of schools of secondary instruction and colleges, we have not given any special account of those institutions which come under the head of Church and Religious Schools, partly because it is a matter of difficulty to separate them from the others, and partly because the greater part of those claiming these specific titles are of comparatively recent origin. In New England, in the early history of the Colonies and States, all the schools were religious. The district or elementary schools had the Bible or Testament for their text-book, almost their only text-book. They read in it, parsed from it, often had their spelling lessons in it, and though they could not prosecute their arithmetical studies from it very well, yet occasionally a knotty problem in figures was drawn from it. The Lord's Prayer, the

Creed, and the Assembly of Divines' | tion, and was so successful that his pupils Shorter Catechism were taught to the conversed freely, and even had copied from children from the New England primer, and their teacher the Spanish accent of French many a hard-headed theologian of the words. His system was unfortunately kept former class acquired his theological training secret, and in the Revolution in France all almost wholly in the district school. The knowledge of his method was lost. Samuel Grammar schools were equally religious in Heinicke, a German teacher, instructed the their purpose and their teachings, and the deaf and dumb, from 1754 to 1780, also by colleges all had for their ultimate object and the method of articulation. There were aim the sentiment emblazoned on the first others before and after these men who had seal of Harvard College, Pro Christo et attempted the instruction of deaf-mutes by Ecclesiæ “For Christ and the Church." this plan, but none of them very successfulThis was equally true also of Kings (now ly. In 1755, the Abbé de l'Epée, a French Columbia) College, New York, and of the philanthropist, attempted to teach deaf two New Jersey colleges at Princeton and New Brunswick. Farther South the collegiate instruction had more of the secular and less of the theological character, but many of the schools were established by particular churches, and taught their doctrines with the studies of a more general character. This was true of the Catholic Conventual and other schools of New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland, the Moravian the Abbé Sicard, one of his teachers and schools of Pennsylvania and North Carolina, and the schools of the Friends or Quakers. As colleges were organized in the newer States they very generally (except in the case of State institutions and sometimes even then) were under the patronage of a particular denomination, and their faculty belonged to that denomination. Of the 375 nominal colleges in the United States there are not more than thirty which are not directly or indirectly denominational.

Among the schools of secondary instruction nearly all the Female Seminaries, and a large majority of academies and other incorporated schools in which higher studies are pursued, are avowedly denominational in their boards of government and instruction.

(1.) Schools for Deaf Mutes. The first efforts for the instruction of Deaf Mutes in England were made between 1742 and 1760. J. R. Pereira, a Spanish Jew, but long resident in France, and a man of remarkable genius, instructed a considerable number of pupils, in 1743-1760, by what is now known as the method of articulation, teaching them to pronounce words by imitating the motion of the lips as the words were uttered. He communicated to them also instruction in regard to the meaning of these words and their colloca

mutes by the natural language of signs, and proceeding from the known to the unknown, to indicate to them abstract ideas by the same method. He also invented a sign alphabet, by means of which they were taught the alphabet and enabled to spell out the words they wished to utter, to those who did not understand the language of signs. His processes, improved greatly by

his successor, and by Bebian, a pupil of Sicard, are those most generally practiced in the instruction of deaf mutes throughout Christendom. Some of the English schools, and a few of the German however, adhere to the system of articulation which was introduced in England in 1760 by Thomas Braidwood, who may have been a pupil of Heinicke. Braidwood kept his processes a profound secret, suffering none but his immediate family and relatives to know them for 60 years. He died in 1806, and his widow and her grandsons, and other relatives maintained the school and the secret many years. One of the grandsons came to the United States in 1811, under the invitation of a former pupil from Virginia, to establish a school for deaf mutes in that State, but he did not succeed.

The first successful attempt to instruct deaf mutes in the United States was made at Hartford, Conn., in April, 1817. Its history was as follows: In 1814, Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet, a young clergyman of Hartford, was led by his interest in Alice Cogswell, the little daughter of Dr. Mason F. Cogswell, who had lost her hearing in infancy, to investigate the number and condition of the deaf mutes in the State, and determined to devote his life to the amelioration of their condition. Dr. Cogswell, Ward Woodbridge, David Wadsworth, and other gentlemen in Hartford, furnished the