FIRST CENTURY OF NATIONAL EXISTENCE; THE UNITED STATES AS THEY WERE AND ARE

pline was the more easily sustained. Selfcontrol and a certain measure of self-reliance were results of the discipline of infancy even; and in advancing childhood it was inculcated in the house and in the field, that each must depend upon himself for whatever he was to be and to possess in life. And knowledge, knowledge that was not the mere blind recipient of instruction, intelligent knowledge which perceived relations, and reasoning knowledge which could make

True, he did not understand all he studied, but he learned to spell and to read and to commit to memory what was assigned him. And when he took his arithmetic, which contained only definitions, rules and examples, although his teacher vouchsafed him little explanation, he had perseverance enough to ponder every dark process till light broke through. And there were instances of boys who worked for consecutive hours and days at problems confessedly some of the most knotty that could be found, till at last their the practical application as opportunity unaided exertions were rewarded with success, which brought more exquisite joy than ever thrilled the finder of a rare gem. These exceptional cases stimulated the more dull, and most became possessed of at least the rudiments of the science, quite sufficient for practical life, or which under the stimulus of necessity became subsequently enlarged to that extent. In manhood no blind adherence to traditional methods was or could be observed. Emergencies were constantly arising which taxed ingenuity to the utmost in devising the fitting expedients to meet them. It was a daily study to make the narrowest means serve the same ends as the amplest. Hard thought was expended without stint upon labor-saving processes, improvements and inventions. Thus was gained a discipline of mind beyond what the higher col- The listening every seventh day to two lege mathematics usually imparts, and oft- discourses, wherein were discussed the deeptimes a readiness in applying mechani-est theories which can be proposed to man, cal principles, of which many an engineer trained in the schools is utterly devoid, however prompt he may be in the routine to which he is accustomed.

served, was set forth as the condition indispensable to render exertion successful. Hence it was a prized privilege to go to school, as well as a pleasant exchange for physical toil for a brief period, an exchange of work at home for another variety of work in the school-room, not of one manner of busy idleness and mischief for another. Also in many cases the home was itself a school, and either that knowledge was there gained which others acquired at school, or study was further pursued under the guidance of parent, or brother or sister, who by some happy gift of Providence had required little tuition. Often also, winter evenings or other hours, when the labor of one pair of hands might be spared, were passed in the social reading of instructive books.

may be named as an additional item in the answer to our inquiry. The clergymen of that day had received the best education that the country afforded, and were daily cultivating intimacy with the profoundest theologians. Thus they had ever thoughts which they had originated or had made their own to present. And these thoughts were inwardly digested by a goodly number of their hearers, and becoming a part of their being, they too

"reasoned high

The family training, aside from the inuring of children to patient industry, contributed greatly to their profiting from their school privileges. To do or not to do was not then left so generally to the child's pleasure. He was made to obey before he had experienced the delight of carrying into effect his own will in opposition to that of others; and thus was formed the habit of unquestioning Of Providence, foreknowledge, will and fate, compliance with the requirements of parents. Fixed fate, free will, foreknowledge absolute;" When the child could understand the sub- and if they "found no end," they were not ject, he was taught that however irksome at "in wandering mazes lost," for, unlike the times were the tasks imposed upon him, it lost angels, they ruled their discussions by was only in virtue of the allotment that man the infallible word of inspiration. It cannot was to eat bread by the sweat of his brow, be said that serious thought then bored, or and that only by a cheerful performance of that the sparkle of the unsubstantial poem what was within his power could he make a chiefly drew, or that triviality was the charreturn for the care he was continually re-acteristic of the multitude.

ceiving. Thus from a sense of religious and The study of one book, and that the Bible, filial obligation the rigor of their early disci- simple enough in parts to meet the under

standing of the little child, and of interest enough to absorb his attention, and in other parts of depths which no finite intellect can sound, and everywhere wise above the wisdom of men, and without any alloy of error, was one of the most efficacious means of raising the mass of the people in intelligence, and in educating a few, who made it their constant meditation, to a nicety of discrimination and a profundity of thought truly wonderful. Take as an example one silvery haired man whose memory is cherished with veneration. His school privileges had been less even than the scanty amount of most of his contemporaries, hardly amounting to three winter schools in all. Moreover, weakness of the eyes almost cut him off from reading books and papers throughout his life. But he was able to read daily a few verses, sometimes several chapters, in his large quarto Bible, and when he read aloud, all untaught as he was, he read with a naturalness and gave the sense, so that the hearer marvelled. Comparing scripture with scripture, he had attained to a skill in interpreting which seldom erred. His quickness in detecting a fallacy or in observing a doctrine which harmonized not with the living oracles was surpassed by very few of even the most highly educated of schoolmen. He was exceedingly retiring, but to the few who knew him, his life and his language seemed as correct as the words of that book on which both, with perfect naturalness, without any tinge of formality or quaintness, were modeled. Who will venture to say that this man's education was not incomparably superior to that of him who has delved a whole life in conflicting systems, who has sought to know the thoughts of all reported as great, but who has settled nothing for him

self?

shown to be capable of sustaining higher responsibilities, advanced him again, so that he who had forged iron chains, was chosen to fashion the more efficacious restraints of laws; he who had occupied the cobbler's seat, was promoted to the bench of justice; and he who had been wont to rule oxen was thought worthy to govern men.

The newspaper, and the family, and the village library contributed largely to the general intelligence. The weekly paper furnished no small part of the topics of conversation in the family and among neighbors, and, in particular, supplied the pabulum for political discussions. The few books owned or borrowed were carefully read again and again. The small proprietary libraries furnished some of the most valuable histories and the choicest works in belles-lettres. was not of rare occurrence to find persons who showed familiarity with Rollin, Ferguson, Gibbon, Robertson, and Hume; and sometimes one might even be met, who could give an orderly account of an entire work of these authors; and there were many who could repeat favorite poems, peradventure even the entire Night Thoughts of Dr. Young, if that was the chosen vade mecum. Even some children of twelve or fifteen years of age,-barefoot boys who had only "noonings" and the time they might gain by manual dexterity in accomplishing their "stents,"

had perused several of the voluminous historians named above. How will such lads compare in mental strength and vigor with children who willingly read nothing but the most exciting tales or the most intellectual pap made toothsome?

The observation of men and of nature, pursued to good advantage where no unbending usages restrained free development of character, no wrappings of conventionaliThe political principles which found their ties gave a uniform semblance to all, where expression in the declaration of independ- the woods and the waters and the inhabience, and which were a cherished inheri- tants thereof had only begun to recognize tance from the fathers, leading to a general the dominion of man, quickened too by participation in the government of the coun- the necessity of turning to account every try, and producing the habit of earnestly item of knowledge that could be gained, was debating every question of public concern, an ample equivalent for the more comprehad no small share of influence in exciting intensity and energy of mental action. By the fireside, in the field, at the corners of the streets, in the shops and stores, those powers were developed which had further exercise in the town meeting, and carried their possessor to some humble position of trust or authority; and when here trained and

hensive speculations of mental philosophy and the scientific nomenclatures and descriptions of natural history to be learned from the mouth of the lecturer.

Finally, those defective schools of the past generation did place the key of knowledge in the hands of the inquisitive; which is nearly all that the schools can now do.

By common or public schools in this chapter is understood that grade or class of educational institutions which the State provides or secures for all its children, in the rural districts as well as in the crowded city, wherever a human being is to be found on its territory capable of receiving that formal instruction which is essential to the healthy physical, moral, and intellectual growth of each individual, and to the attainment of that amount of knowledge which the performance of every day business and the universal duties of citizenship require. It is common, because it is the debt which the community owes to every citizen for their good and its security. It is public, because it is established by the State through agencies of its appointment or providing, conducted according to the rules of its prescribing or authorization, supported by funds protected or furnished by its legislation, accessible to all pupils upon terms of equality, and subject to such inspection as the law may institute. It is not necessarily gratuitous; it may be free or cheap-but it can not be common if the cost is beyond the reach of the poorest. Although public, it is not beyond legal control. It is everywhere subject to such limitations as to age, attendance, studies, books, and teachers as the State may prescribe; and it must exist by force of law, general or special, and be managed by agents who have their authority direct or indirect from legal provisions, and its privileges must be open to all children on equal terms. It is no longer limited in its range of instruction to the few elementary studies, or to mere children. Studies which formerly belonged to the academy or college are now parts of the curriculum in the higher classes or grades of the common school, especially in cities and large villages.

Although originating at different times, and projected after different models, and modified by differing conditions of nationality, occupation, and religious opinions or practices, the American Common or Public School, however widely separated in territory, is now subjected to common social and political influences, and is fast approximating

to a common organization, and to similar, and almost identical systems of administration, instruction and discipline. It is doubtful if the institution attains its highest efficiency and broadest usefulness, by this legal uniformity. Large bodies of children will be thrown out of its influence altogether; bitter antagonisms between bodies of citizens will be engendered; and the teaching power of the schools will not find that field and stimulus for individual expansion and original methods and special adaptations, which greater liberty of instruction, and more diversified preparation and administration would create. It is not impossible that the recent rapid approach to uniformity in organization, administration, instruction and discipline, will be arrested and modified by the independent action of State and city systems, as soon as each becomes again more subject to peculiar local influences.

The constitutional provision of any State is indicative only of the policy of a comparatively few men on the subject of schools and education, and is mainly serviceable in protecting funds specially appropriated to these purposes from being devoted to other objects, and in giving the friends of these interests a firm ground to stand on in their advocacy of the same. The constitutions and school acts since 1865 in the States recently engaged in the rebellion, and prostrated in its suppression, have been adopted for the protection of the enfranchised colored population, and are not in harmony with the former habits and present convictions of a large majority of the old voters. It will take years before this great interest of schools and education can get adjusted to the new relations of parties, and firmly established in the habits of society.

We shall now proceed to give a compre hensive survey of the progressive develop ment of Common or Public schools in each State, and at the same time indicate at least statistically, the condition of the State in respect to other educational institutions and agencies. For convenience of reference we shall present the States in their alphabetical order and not in the more logical order of the chronological establishment and development of schools in the same. To appreciate the greater or less rapidity and efficiency of the movement we shall indicate the date of settlement, the organization of the government, the growth of population, and the resources of each State, and the latest statistical results.

I. ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION.

ALABAMA.

Alabama belonged to the State of Georgia till 1802, when by cession it became part of the Territory of Mississippi until 1817, when it was organized as an independent Territory, and admitted a State in 1819, with a population in 1820, 127,901; which had increased in 1870 to 996,992, (475,510 colored); on an area of 50,722 square miles; and taxable property | to the value of $157,770,387.

The earliest constitution of Alabama (1819) ordains that 'schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged,' and the General Assembly is directed to protect (1,) the land grants of the United States for the use of schools within each township; and (2,) the Seminary lands for a State university for the promotion of the arts, litera

ture and science.'

The Constitution of 1867 ordains the appointment of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, elected at the same time and in the same manner as the Governor, and of a Board of Education, consisting of the Superintendent and the Governor ex-officio, and two members elected for a term of four years, for each Congressional District. The Board of Education is declared a body corporate and politic, with full legislative powers in reference to the public educational institutions of the State, and its acts when approved by the Governor, or when reënacted by two-thirds of the Board in case of his disapproval, shall have the effect of law, unless repealed by the General Assembly. This Board of Education is constituted a Board of Regents for the State University, and when sitting as such, has power to appoint the president and faculty. Of the Board of Regents, the president of the University is, ex-officio, a member for consultation. To the support of public schools the constitution continues the appropriation of all lands and other property donated to the State by the United States and individuals for educational purposes, and one-fifth of the aggregate annual revenue of the State, and of any specific tax which the General Assembly may levy upon all railroad, navigation, banking and insurance companies, foreign or domestic, doing business in the State.

The peculiar legislative and administrative school authorities provided by the State in

the constitution of 1867, has not had thus far, a favorable field, or sufficient time to develop its legitimate results. The attempts. to establish an efficient system of public schools, based on the original U. S. township land grants (16th section), by ordinary legislation, from the first State law of 1823 down to 1854, had entirely failed. In the year last named, to give efficiency to previous laws, a State Superintendent was appointed, additional resources were provided by setting aside the income of the U. S. Surplus Revenue fund deposited with the State, and the avails of certain swamp lands, and a direct appropriation of $100,000 out of the aggregate annual State tax. Under the active labors and legislative reports of the Superintendent, the holding of Teachers' Institutes, the meetings of a State Educational Association, the circulation of monthly issues of an Educational Journal, an intelligent public opinion was being created, and school officers were being educated to their work, when the war of Secession arrested the work of peace. The annihilation of all personal property, and the revolution of the old social and industrial system of the South which followed, has left a debris to be cleared away before any general system of education adapted to the new order of society can be organized and put in efficient operation.

Under the legislative authority vested by the constitution in the Board of Education, and under the administration of a Superintendent of Public Schools, elected by the people for four years, a system has been instituted which in most of its features corresponds to that which was growing up out of the legislation of 1854, and for its support the superintendent in his report for 1871 estimates that the sum of $700,000 will be available in 1872.

To assist the reorganization of public schools in Mobile, Montgomery, Selma, Huntsville, La Fayette, Girard, and Columbiana, aid was extended by the agent of the Peabody Fund to the extent of about $5,000 in 1871.

The census of 1870 returned 77,139 in school attendance, out of 342,976 of the school age (5 to 18 years); and 349,771 persons over 10 years who could not read, and 383,012 who could not write. Out of 2,969 schools of all kinds, with 75,866 pupils, 57 are returned as classical colleges and academies, with 3,218 pupils, and 2,812 public schools, with 67,000 pupils.

ARKANSAS.

POPULATION-In 1840, 97,574; in 1870, 484,471-race, 362,115 w. 122,169 c. AREA-52,198 sq. m.; persons to s. m., 9.30; families, 96.135; pers. to fam., 5.04; dwellings, 98,195; per. to dw., 5.20; persons between 5 and 18,

84,645 m., 80,845 f. Taxable property, $94,168,843.

Arkansas was organized a Territory in March, 1819, and admitted a State in 1836. The constitution of 1836 ordains that the General Assembly, in consideration that 'knowledge and learning generally diffused throughout a community are essential to the preservation of a free government,' shall provide by law for the school lands, and encourage intellectual, scientific and agricultural improvements.' The State received 886,460 acres of land for common schools, and 46,080 for a university, but the legislature did not come up to the above requirements of the above fundamental ordinance, and no serious, or at least no successful attempt was ever made to inaugurate a system of public schools. In 1854 the Secretary of the State, who was ex-officio, State Commissioner of Common Schools, reported only 40 public schools, and complains of the indifference that pervades the public mind on the subject of education.' Owing to this indifference, and fraudulent and defective legislation, the munificent land grants of the general government have been squandered, and the permanent school fund from these sources in 1870 was $35,192, instead of $2,000,000 or $3,000,000, as might have been realized under honest and judicious management.

In view of these provisions, a school system was established in 1869, the authorities of which are: (1,) a State Superintendent, elected every four years; (2,) a Circuit Superintendent, appointed by the Governor for each judicial district, of which there are ten; (3,) a State Board of Education, composed of the State and Circuit Superintendents; (4,) a single trustee for each school district, and (5,) a city Superintendent for each incorporated city. The Circuit Superintendent gives his entire time to the interests of the schools, holds a Teachers' Institute in his district every year, examines all candidates for the office of public school teacher, and issues three grades of certificates-the first of which is valid in his district for 2 years, the second for 1 year, and the third for & months.

The report of the Superintendent to the Governor at the close of 1870, made a very fair exhibit of schools, teachers and expenditures compared with any thing before published. In the two years 1869 and 1870, 657 new school-houses have been built, making in all 1,289; of 182,474 children (white and colored) between the ages of 5 and 21, 107,908 have attended school of some kind 2,537 schools had been taught by 2,302 teachers, of whom 944 attended the 41 Teachers' Institutes which had been held. The entire sum expended for the public schools was $583,844, of which $334,952 was from direct tax.

The Arkansas Journal of Education was established in 1870, and made the organ of the State Board in 1871. A State Teachers' Association was organized in 1869, and has held three annual meetings. The Peabody Fund furnished aid in 1870 to the amount

The constitution of 1868 ordains that 'the General Assembly shall establish and maintain a system of free schools for the gratuitous instruction of all persons in the State between the ages of five and twenty-one years,' and for their supervision, 'a superintendent of $9,450. and such other officers as may be necessary, The National census for 1870 returns shall be appointed.' A State university, 1,978 schools of all kinds, under 3,008 'with departments for instruction in teaching, teachers, of whom 992 were females. Of in agriculture and the natural sciences shall also be established and maintained.' 'To support these institutions, the proceeds of all school lands and other property before donated, or which may be donated to the State for educational purposes, shall constitute a School Fund, the annual income of These statistics returned for some States which, together with one dollar per capita would be significant, but names are not annually assessed on every male inhabitant things, or at least schools, in the light which over the age of 21 years, and so much more official reports throw on their actual condiof the ordinary annual revenue of the State tion in Arkansas, especially when the same as shall be found necessary, shall be faithfully census returns 111,799 persons over 10 appropriated to the free schools and univer-years old who can not read, and 133,339 sities, and to no other purpose whatever.' who can not write.

these schools 1,744 are public, with 1,966 teachers and 72,004 pupils. Under the head of classical, professional and technical institutions, there are 8 colleges (so-called), 46 academies, 1 school of theology, 1 of medicine and one for the blind and deaf mutes.

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