2. In the sense of 'because of,' 'owing to,' = par: 1. Denoting the indirect object=à (cf. §362, 2) : Je l'ai donné à un ami. I gave it to a friend. 2. Denoting motion to=à, en (cf. § 333, 2, 3); in the sense of 'to the house, etc., of,' 'to's' chez : Il va à Paris (à l'école; au Japon; à un bal; en France; en Portugal; chez eux; chez mon ami). He goes to Paris (to school; to Japan; to a ball; to France; to Portugal; to their house, etc.; to my friend's). 3. In the sense of 'towards'vers (physical tendency), envers (moral tendency): Levez les yeux vers le ciel ; il est juste envers tous. Raise your eyes to heaven; he is just to all. 4. In the sense of 'as far as '=jusqu'à : Venez jusqu'au bout de la rue. 5. Unclassified: Come to the end of the street. Le voyage (train) de Montréal; The journey (train) to Montreal; to écrire sous dictée; dans ce but. write to dictation; to this end. Sous la table; sous la loi; sous Under the table; under the iaw; peine de mort. under pain of death. 2. Denoting lower than, less than au-dessous de : Au-dessous du coude; vendre une chose au-dessous de sa valeur. 3. Unclassified: Fouler aux pieds; à cette condition; dans les circonstances; dans la nécessité de; mineur. = Under the elbow; to sell a thing under its value. To tread under foot; under this condition; under the circumstances; under the necessity of; under age. 1. In the sense of 'along with,' 'in company with '=avec : Dînez avec moi à l'hôtel; un offi- Dine with me at the hotel; an offi. cier avec des soldats. cer with some soldiers. 2. In the sense of 'at the house, etc., of'chez: Il demeure chez nous. 3. Denoting instrument, manner Frapper avec un marteau; écrire avec une plume; avec courage (force). 4. Denoting a characteristic=à: Un homme à la barbe noire. He lives with us. avec (usually): To strike with a hammer; to write with a pen; with courage (force). A man with a black beard. 5. 'With' of accessory circumstance is usually turned by an absolute construction: Il parla les yeux baissés. He spoke with downcast eyes. 6. In the sense of 'from,' 96 on account of,' and after many verbs and adjectives de: Elle pleura de colère; couvrir de; She wept with anger; to cover content de. 7. Unclassified: À l'exception de; à haute voix; à bras ouverts; de bon appétit; à l'œil nu; de tout mon cœur. with; satisfied with. With the exception of; with a loud voice; with open arms; with a good appetite; with the naked eye; with all my heart. THE CONJUNCTION. 455. Conjunctions. The following table contains most of the conjunctions and conjunctive locutions in use :— tà (la) condition que3, on condition that. *afin que2, in order that, so that. ainsi, therefore, hence. ainsi que, as well as, as. alors que, when. à mesure que, as, just as. *à moins que...ne3, unless. après que, after. à proportion que, in proportion as. attendu que, considering that. *bien que*, though, although. *ce n'est pas que, not that. cependant, however, yet. comme, as. +dans le cas où3, in case (that). *de crainte que...ne2, for fear that. tde façon que2, so that. +de manière que2, so that. de même que, as well as. *de peur que...ne2, for fear that. depuis que, since. +de (telle) sorte que2, so that. *encore que1, though, although. ten sorte que2, so that. *en supposant que3, supposing that. et, and. et...et, both...and. excepté que, except that. tjusqu'à ce que1, until. *loin que, far from. lorsque, when. mais, but. *malgré que, though, although. ni...ni...(...ne), neither...nor. *non (pas) que", not that. non seulement... mais encore, not only...but also. or, now. ou, or. ou...ou, either...or. outre que, besides that. parce que, because. partant, therefore, hence. pendant que, while, whilst. *pour peu que1, if ever so little. *pour que2, in order that. pourtant, yet, however. *pourvu que3, provided that. puisque, since. quand, when. †quand même1, though, even if. tque, that, than, as. *quoique, though, although. N.B.-Conjunctions without * or † in the table are followed by the indicative. 1 See §271, 1 (time before which or up to which). 2 See $271, 2 (purpose or result). 3 See §271, 3 (condition). 4 See §271, 4 (concession). 5 See §271, 5 (negation). 6 See $269, §271, 6, and §458 USE OF CERTAIN CONJUNCTIONS. 456. Et. 1. When repeated, et usually denotes 'both... and'; otherwise it stands with the last only of two or more clauses: I know both the father and son. Je connais et le père et le fils. Les femmes pleuraient, criaient et The women wept (and) screamed gesticulaient. and gesticulated. 2. 'And' after a verb of motion is usually untranslated: Allez leur parler. Go and speak to them. 457. Ni. 1. A finite verb with ni or ni...ni must be preceded by ne: Il n'a ni or ni argent. He has neither gold nor silver. a. For the position of ni...ni...ne, see §416, d. 2. In sentences of negative force, 'and,' 'or,' are rendered by ni: Honneurs ni richesses ne font le Honours and wealth do not constibonheur. tute happiness. 3. Observe the following equivalents of 'neither,' 'not either,' 'nor either,' 'nor,' when not correlative: Je ne le ferai pas.-Ni moi non plus. Il ne le fera pas non plus. Il ne l'a pas fait, et il ne le fera pas. I shall not do it.-Nor I either (or Neither shall I). He will not do it either. He has not done it, nor will he (do it). 458. Que. 1. Que='that' is followed by the indicative or subjunctive according to the context: Je dis que vous avez raison. I say that you are right. Je suis fâché que vous ayez raison. I am sorry that you are right. 2. Que often replaces another conjunction; when so used, it takes the same construction as the conjunction for which it stands, except that que instead of si='if' always requires the subjunctive: Quand vous aurez fini, et que vous aurez le temps. When you have finished, and (when you) have time. Venez que (='afin que,' 'pour Come that I may see you. que') je vous voie. Si vous venez demain, et que vous ayez le temps. If you come to-morrow, and (if you) have time. 3. Que may not be omitted before a finite verb, as 'that' often is in English: Je crois qu'il viendra et qu'il res- I think (that) he will come and (that he will) stay. tera. 459. Distinctions. The following conjunctions are especially liable to be confounded in use: 1. Quand, Lorsque. They are equivalents in the sense of 'when,' but quand (not lorsque') serves also as an interrogative adverb in direct or indirect questions: |