This is a Simple Sentence, since it has but one subject and one predicate. The phrase, one of the greatest travelers of modern times, is in apposition with Livingstone. Now, by putting the words who is before this expression, we shall turn it into a clause, and we shall then have the Complex Sentence: "The discoveries of Livingstone, who is one of the greatest travelers of modern times, have taught us much about the interior of Africa."

(2.) Complex to Compound.

5. We have changed a number of Simple Sentences into Complex Sentences. Now we shall transform these Complex Sentences into Compound Sentences.

"When the battle was concluded, the commander began to count his loss."

The reason why this is a Complex Sentence is because one of the statements, when the battle was concluded, qualifies the other, which is the principal statement.

6. If we make this qualifying statement a principal one, we shall have a Compound Sentence, thus: "The battle was concluded, and the commander began to count his loss."

7. The second Complex Sentence is: "As Mary was ill, we had to go to the picnic without her.

This is transformed into a Compound Sentence, as follows: "Mary was ill, and hence we had to go to the picnic without her."

8. The third Complex Sentence is: "The discoveries of Livingstone, who is one of the greatest travelers of modern times, have taught us much about the interior of Africa."

This is transformed into a Compound Sentence, as follows: "Livingstone is one of the greatest travelers of modern times, and his discoveries have taught us much about the interior of Africa."

9. RULE. A Compound Sentence is contracted into a Complex one by changing a Principal Member into a Clause. A Complex Sentence is contracted into a simple one by changing a Clause into a Phrase.

(3.) Compound to Complex.

10. Take the following Compound Sentence: "The sea spent its fury, and then it became calm."

This is a Compound Sentence, because it contains two principal statements. What are these statements? Does either qualify the other?

11. This sentence may be transformed into a Complex Sentence in the following ways:

1. "The sea, when it had spent its fury, became calm."
2. "The sea became calm when it had spent its fury."
3. "When the sea had spent its fury, it became calm."
4. "When it had spent its fury, the sea became calm."

Each of these sentences is a Complex Sentence, because of its two statements; the one qualifies the other. What is the principal statement in each? What is the qualifying clause in the first? the second? the third? the fourth?

(4.) Complex to Simple.

12. In order to condense the Complex Sentence, "When the sea had spent its fury, it became calm," into a Simple Sentence, we must change the clause, " When the sea had spent its fury," into a phrase: namely, "The sea having spent its fury." We now have the following forms of the Simple Sentence:

1. "The sea, having spent its fury, became calm."
2. "The sea became calm, having spent its fury."
3. "Having spent its fury, the sea became calm."

Exercise 55.
A.

Expand the following SIMPLE SENTENCES into CoмPLEX SENTENCES:

1. Quarrelsome persons are disagreeable.

2. The ancients believed the earth to be the centre of the universo.

3. With patience, he might have succeeded.

4. The utility of the telegraph is evident to all.

5. The manner of his escape is a profound mystery.

B.

Expand the following COMPLEX SENTENCES into COM

POUND:

1. As the wind was fair, the vessel put to sea.

2. The Scots, who advanced to York, ravaged the country with unsparing fury.

3. The heart of Robert Bruce, which was preserved in a silver case, was consigned to the care of Douglas.

4. Beyond the Mississippi are vast prairies, over which roam great herds of buffalo.

C.

Contract the following COMPOUND SENTENCES into COMPLEX SENTENCES, and then, if possible, into SIMPLE SENTENCES:

1. The light infantry joined the main body, and the British troops retreated precipitately into Boston.

2. He was a worthless man, and he could not command the respect of his neighbors.

3. Egypt is a wonderfully fertile country, and it is annually overflowed by the River Nile.

4. The earth is round, and no one doubts it.

5. The house was very large, and consequently there was little comfort in it.

D.

Contract the following COMPLEX SENTENCES into SIMPLE SENTENCES:

1. Socrates proved that virtue is its own reward.

2. When morning began to dawn, our ship struck on a sunken reef near the rock-bound coast.

3. It may be easily shown that the earth is round [the rotundity of]. 4. It is generally believed that the soul is immortal.

5. The rain has been falling ever since the sun rose.

6. A tree is known by the fruit that it bears.

7. As Egypt is annually overflowed by the Nile, it is a very rich country.

8. The man who is virtuous will be happy.

7*

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

A.-LETTER-WRITING.

Superscriptions and Subscriptions.

The following superscriptions, subscriptions, etc., of letters are designed to show what is now regarded the most approved arrangement and style of these parts; and they may serve as models, according to circumstances.

Some of the most common forms of address are Sir, Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Respected Sir, Sirs, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, Ladies, Madam, Dear Madam, etc.; Friend Brown, Dear Susan, My dear Friend, My dear Mr. Smith, My dear Mrs. Smith, Mother, Brother, etc., according to the relations of respect, intimacy, or affection existing between the parties. Note that the form of address, Madam, Dear Madam, is as applicable to unmarried as to married ladies.

The closing part may be Yours, Yours truly, Most truly yours, Very truly yours, Yours respectfully, Respectfully, Sincerely yours, Your friend, obedient servant, etc.; Yours affectionately, Your affectionate friend, Your loving brother, sister, etc., followed by the name of the writer. The closing will vary with the varying relations of the parties...

Mr., Mrs., Miss, and Master are common titles, and should be used unless the person has a higher title. Messrs. and Misses are prefixed to the name of a firm, or to the names of persons collectively, and the name is followed by Sirs, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, or Ladies, as the case may be.

not

Medical men have the titles Dr. and M.D. Legal gentlemen, artists, and sometimes others of high social standing, have the title Esq. But the title Esq. has so completely lost all meaning in this country that persons of good taste are wholly ceasing to use it: thus, "Mr. John Smith," "John Smith, Esq." Be careful never to use the form "Mr. John Smith, Esq." Military men have the titles Gen., Maj-Gen., Col., Capt., etc., according to rank. Graduates of colleges have some academic title, as A.B., A.M., etc. Clergymen have the titles, The Rev., The Rev. Dr., and, if bishops, that of Rt. Rev. The Hon. is the proper title for judges, congressmen, state senators, mayors of cities, heads of government departments, and others of similar rank; and His Excellency, for the Governor of any State, or an ambassador of the United States. The President may be addressed His Excellency, but strict etiquette prescribes the form as included in the following models:

(2.) Address.

Mr. James F. Hammond,

421 Broadway, N. Y.

(3.) Introduction.

Dear Sir,

(1.) Heading or Date. Cambridge, Mass., Feb. 3, 1873.

(4.) Body.

In reply to your letter of the 10th inst., I beg

leave to say that I most cheerfully accede to your very

reasonable request, etc.

=

=

NOTE ON PUNCTUATION.-In the heading or date, a comma is placed after "Cambridge," because the full form is the phrase = This is written in the city of Cambridge. A period is placed after Mass. because it is an abbreviation, and a comma after Mass. because it is an elliptical phrase in the State of Massachusetts. A period is placed after Feb. for the same reason as in Mass. A comma is placed after 3, because in reality a phrase = on the third day. A period closes 1873, because the end of an elliptical declarative sentence This is written in the city of Cambridge, etc. In the address, "Mr. James F. Hammond," is followed by a comma to set off the succeeding elliptical phrase at No. 421 Broadway. "Broadway "is followed by a comma to set it off from the elliptical phrase in the city of New York. N. is followed by a period because an abbreviation, and Y. by a period, which serves both as the sign of abbreviation and as the terminal mark. The form Dear Sir may be followed by the comma and dash (,-), or by the colon (:), as in the next model. In the subscription, Yours respectfully is followed by a comma, because in apposition with the name, Henry H. Adams. Note that the words Dear Sir in the introduction begin with capitals.

Messrs. Nichols & Hall,

32 Bromfield St., Boston.

Dear Sirs:

96 Pearl St., New York, July 27, 1872.

I am, gentlemen,

Respectfully yours,
David B. Smith, Jr.

*The address inside the letter should be identical with the superscription upon the envelope, and it may be put either before the introduction or at the bottom of the letter.