COR only to profitable land. Before the Desmond possessions had grown to this extent, the entire county of Cork had become Irish in language and habit. 1" various branches of the Boyle family. The services of the British tenantry planted by this enterprising nobleman were soon called for, on the breaking out of the rebelMost of the old nobility of English descent had taken part lion of 1641. The good conduct of the various bodies of with the defeated Yorkists in the latter end of the preceding this militia, under the command of lords Broghill, Kinalcentury, and the Irish, on these noblemen leaving their meaky, Dungarvan, and Shannon, lord Cork's sons, mateestates to assist Simnel and Warbeck, had returned from rially conduced to the pacification of Munster. Throughout their fortresses and over-run the new plantations. The fami- the war the English were generally successful in retaining lies of Carew, Barnwell, De Courcey, Balram, Mandeville, the walled towns and castles. Lord Castlehaven had some and Arundel, were thus expelled from the country, while their successes on the other side in 1645, taking Mitchelstown, places were occupied by the descendants of the Irish clans Liscarrol, Mallow, Doneraile, and various castles north of above mentioned. The reformation had made little pro- the Blackwater in this county; but these places did not gress in a country so indisposed for the reception of any-long remain in his hands. The chief battles fought in Cork thing English, and on the breaking out of the northern during this war were at Liscarrol, 3rd September, 1642, rebellion in Elizabeth's time, Cork was considered the where Lord Inchiquin, accompanied by the sons of the earl of Cork, with a force of 2000 foot and 400 horse, totally fittest place for an attempt in favour of the Catholic cause under the auspices of King Philip of Spain, to whom the defeated the Irish under general Barry, who is said to have The had 7000 foot and 500 horse; and at Knockinoss, near Malcountry had been offered by Pope Gregory XIII. principal Irish agent in bringing about the invasion was low, 13th November, 1647, where the same general, with James Fitz-Maurice, the brother of the 15th Earl. On 4000 foot and 1200 horse, routed the Irish, being 8500 his landing with some Italian troops, accompanied by strong, under the command of lord Taaffe and Sir AlexSaunders, the pope's legate, 1st July, 1578, he was joined ander (son of the famous Colkitto) Macdonnel. Four thouby his brother Sir John of Desmond, and by James Fitz- sand Irish fell on the field of battle; and for his good conduct on the occasion lord Inchiquin was voted a present of Gerald, the earl's brother. The earl himself made some show of attacking them at first, and during the early part 10007. by the parliament. About 1657 lord Broghill began of the war which ensued took no active part against the to agitate the question of the restoration, which event he was mainly instrumental in bringing about in 1660. He queen; but having refused to yield up his castles and come was now created lord Orrery, and advanced to the presiin on the summons of the Lord Justice Sir William Pelham, he was, with all his family, proclaimed traitor, 1st No- dency of Munster, the affairs of which he managed with vember 1579. On this he set up his standard at Bally- great prudence till 1668, when, falling into disfavour at howra in Cork, declared for the Catholic cause, and seized court, he was deprived of his commission. In the same on Youghall. The war which ensued was predatory and year he successfully defended himself on an impeachment sanguinary on both sides, and lasted till November 1583, before the Commons; and being restored to the favour of when the unfortunate earl, after losing all his castles, and the king, returned to his native country, where he died in 1679. The forfeitures consequent on this rebellion affected being driven to lurk for months together in the woods, was put to death by one Kelly, who found him in a wretched chiefly the estates of lords Roche and Muskerry. cabin, where he was hiding, in the county of Kerry. The forfeited estates were divided into seigniories, and granted to English adventurers. Upwards of 20,000 acres fell to Sir Walter Raleigh, who had been active in the suppression of the rebellion. The other grantees in Cork were:Sir Warham St. Leger, 6000 acres; Hugh Cuffe, Esq., 6000; Sir Thomas Norris, 6000; Arthur Robins, Esq., 18,000; Sir Arthur Hyde, 5574; Fane Beecher, Esq., 12,000; Hugh Worth, Esq., 12,000; Thomas Say, Esq., 5775; Arthur Hyde, Esq., 11,766; Edmond Spenser, Esq., 3028; Sir Richard Beacon (in Cork and Waterford), 6000. On the 7th December, 1602, Sir Walter Raleigh conA veyed his proportion in Cork and Waterford for a small sum to Sir Richard Boyle, afterwards earl of Cork. large part of Beecher's seigniory was purchased by Sir Richard about the same time. On the latter he built the fortified town of Bandon, which he peopled with English settlers; and so stocked and planted his whole estate with British, that in 1611 his tenants on Raleigh's portion mustered 550 foot and 80 horsemen, and in 1622 on Beecher's portion, 564 foot and 66 horse, the horse being mostly gentlemen and freeholders. Before this settlement the county had been much distracted by the wars consequent on the landing of the Spaniards, 23rd September, 1601, in support of Hugh earl of Tyrone, then in rebellion in Ulster. Tyrone had shortly before this raised James Fitz Thomas, the nephew of the late earl, to the title. He was known as the Sugaun or Straw Earl; and in his rebellion was joined by great numbers of the native Irish under Florence Mac Carthy, who had also been created Mac Carthy More by Tyrone, in place of Daniel, lately deposed from the chieftainship by the same authority. This war was quieted just before the arrival of the Spaniards by the capture of the two leaders. Mac Carthy was executed, and the Sugaun Earl, being imprisoned in the tower of London, died there in 1608. By the latter end of December, 1601, the rebellion was at an end; numbers of the chief rebels had fled to Spain, and after the exhibition of some discontents on the proclamation of King James, April, 1603, the country settled into tranquillity. Sir Richard Boyle now began to regulate the various boroughs which he had enlarged or founded on his estates, procuring charters for Youghall, Bandon, Cloghnakilty, and Baltimore. His family preserving the same policy afterwards, raised Middleton, Doneraile, Castlemartyr, and Charleville, to the rank of corporate towns; so that the whole representation of the county ultimately rested in the No. 469. During the war of the Revolution, Cork was again the theatre of a desultory but sanguinary series of conflicts between the native Irish of the rural districts and the militia of British descent. The chief sufferers by the forfeitures consequent on the war of the Revolution were Donogh lord Clancarty, Sir Richard Nagle, colonel Barrett, and the viscount Kenmare. The extent of land forfeited was 244,320 acres, valued at 32,1337. 12s. 6d. per annum; or 417,7377. 2s. 6d. at the then rate of purchase. This was by much the most extensive forfeiture in any one county. Among the numerous minor proprietors who suffered confiscation, the name of Hugolin Spencer, a descendant of the poet, occurs. The antiquities are chiefly military, and comprise some of the finest buildings of the kind in Ireland. The castle of Kanturk, built by Mac Donogh, prince of Duhallow, is a square of 120 feet by 80, and about 70 feet in height. Lo hort castle, built in king John's reign, is a massive keep, 80 feet high. Liscarrol castle, of the same date, is an oblong of 120 by 240 feet. Blarney castle, built by Cormack Mac Carthy in 1449, is still a fine ruin, though only one-fourth feet thick. The other castles still standing in the county of the original building is now standing: the walls are 18 The dioceses of Cork, Cloyne, and Ross, with which the are very numerous, and of great historical interest. county is nearly co-extensive, rank respectively 19th, 25th, and 21st, among the 32 Irish dioceses in point of education. The average of educated persons in the three dioceses is 6.8 per cent. The amount of direct taxation levied by grand jury pre 1829, 72,9697. 2s. 7d.; being on an average of the twenty sentment on this county in 1810 was 66,8497. Os. 7d., and in years included, 65,570l. 7s. 114d. On a valuation made by order of the grand jury in 1829-30, the rent value has been estimated at 1,135,9237. 16s. 2d. per annum. (Smith's History of the County of Cork, Dublin, 1750, and Cork, 1825; Townsend's Statistical Survey of Cork, Cork, 1815; Cox's CORK, a bishop's see in the archdiocese of Cashel, in History of Ireland; Parliamentary Reports and Papers.) Ireland. The chapter consists of a dean, chanter, chancellor, treasurer, archdeacon, and twelve prebendaries. This diocese stretches across the central district of the county of Cork, and embraces the county of the city. It extends in 16. It contains 83 parishes, constituting 65 benefices. In length, from east to west, 74 miles, and from north to south 1792 the numbers were, 94 parishes, 49 benefices, and 41 churches. In 1834 the numbers were, churches of the esta [THE PENNY CYCLOPÆDIA.] VOL. VIII.-D blishment, 58; other places of worship in connexion therewith, 26; Roman Catholic ditto, 73; Presbyterian ditto, 3; other Protestant dissenting ditto, 16. In the latter year the gross population of the diocese was 340,594; of whom there were 35,229 members of the Established Church, 303,984 Roman Catholics, 510 Presbyterians, and 871 other Protestant Dissenters; being in the proportion of 1 Protestant of whatever denomination to 8 Roman Catholics nearly. There were at the same time in this diocese 346 schools, educating 24,448 young persons, being in the proportion of 7% of the entire population under daily instruction; in which respect Cork stands 19th among the 32 dioceses of Ireland, and is on a par with Dublin. Of the above schools 20 were, in 1834, in connexion with the Board of National Education. The foundation of this see is ascribed to St. Barr, about the beginning of the seventh century. It became united to Cloyne, about 1464, and so continued till 1586, when, together with Cloyne, it was annexed to the diocese of Ross, and so continued till 1678, when these dioceses were again divided, Cork and Ross going together, and Cloyne separately. By the 3rd and 4th Wm. IV., c. 37, these sees are to be again united, on the united see of Cork and Ross becoming vacant. (Beaufort's Memoirs of an Ecclesiastical Map of Ireland.) CORK, a city, the assize town of the county of Cork, in the province of Munster, in Ireland, situated in the county of the city of Cork, on both sides of the river Lee, four miles from its entrance into Cork harbour. 51° 54′ N. lat.,| 8° 30' W. long. Distant from Dublin 124 Irish, or 158 English miles. the beginning of the last century, and continues to extend. although not so rapidly as during the time of the late war which was very beneficial to Cork in a local point of view. Cork is governed by a common council, consisting of the mayor, two sheriffs, recorder, and as many aldermen as with these shall not exceed the number of twenty-four. A corporate combination which originated about seventy years ago, under the name of the Friendly Club, operates to the unfair exclusion of Roman Catholics. Out of 2665 freemen, there were in 1833 only 73 Roman Catholics. The freemen are exempt from paying tythes. Of the whole number, 1593 were non-residents, of whom the majority had been created by special favour of the Common Council. The average income of the corporation is 62377 per annum, which is rather more than the merely municipal expenditure; but by Grand Jury presentments, and otherwise, a sum of about 54,0007. per annum is disposed of at the discretion of the corporate authorities. The port and harbour of Cork are under the regulation of a Board of Commissioners, acting under 1 Geo. IV., c. 52, the nominees of the corporation. Receipts and expenditure as follows: 1830 Dr. 78721. 9s. 3d. Cr. 8388. Os. Od. The paving, lighting, and cleansing of the city lie with Wide Street Commissioners, originally appointed by 5th Geo. III., c. 24, modified by subsequent and local acts. The annual expense for lighting was, in 1833, 32007.; and for paving, repairing, widening, &c., of streets, 56007, of which 28007. is defrayed by the county at large. This board is likewise under corporate control. It receives its income by Grand Jury presentments, The county of the city consists of the city, suburbs, and liberties, and contains 45,000 statute acres, being a borough subject to the city magistrates, and liable to city taxation. There are numerous charters, of which the earliest bears The supply of water is regulated by a Pipe Water Comdate 26th Henry III, and the latest 31st Geo. II. By char-pany incorporated under several acts, of which the last was ter 10th March, 6th James I., the city and all the lands ex- 26 Geo. III., c. 38. A fourth part of the shares belong to tending from its walls, for the circuit of three miles on every the corporation. The charge to the inhabitants is two side, were erected into a separate county, the bounds of guineas per annum per house. There are no public founwhich were laid down by commissioners. The suburbs on tains. Receipts of the company for 1833, 15777. 58. 8d. each side of the island were defined by act 53 Geo. III., c. 3; but since that period, 1813, they have extended considerably. The school of St. Barr is supposed to have first drawn inhabitants to this neighbourhood. The city was walled in by the Danes in the ninth century, and was afterwards repaired by King John. The situation was on an island of an oval form, round which the river ran in two channels; beyond these were narrow marshes skirting steep banks, which surrounded the basin occupied by the old town on every side. These marshy flats have subsequently been drained and built upon, and the city now spreads over the high ground on both sides of the river. Prior to the reign of Edward IV., it would appear that the suburbs of the old city also had spread over these grounds, as a charter of the second year of that reign recites, 'that inasmuch as the suburbs extending a mile on every part of the city had been destroyed by Irish enemies, the rent of 80 marks a year payable by the townsmen to the crown should be remitted, and the cocket or customs of the city should be granted for the purpose of constructing walls, until the inhabitants should be able to go peaceably one mile outside the same.' During the period alluded to in the account of Cork county, when the Irish had overrun the possessions of the decayed Yorkist nobility, and down even to the time of Elizabeth, the inhabitants of the city lived as if in a state of continual siege, never venturing beyond their walls except in numerous bodies, nor daring to marry out their daughters into the country, but contracting one with another among themsclves, whereby all the citizens were related in some degree or another.' (Camden.) About 1620 Cork was counted the fourth city of Ireland, being inferior both to Waterford and Limerick. From its low situation Cork can never be a place of defensive strength. The only severe siege it ever endured was in 1690, when held by Governor Mac Eligott, with six Irish regiments, for James. The siege was conducted by the duke of Marlborough, with whom were the dukes of Wirtemberg and Grafton (natural son of Charles II.), with a force of about 10,000 fot and 1200 horse. The town held out for five days; and the English had lost a considerable number, among was the duke of Grafton, the garrison surrendered oners of war. The city has enlarged rapidly since The Grand Jury which presents for the public expenditure is nominated by the sheriffs: a sum of about 29,0007. is annually presented, all of which, with the exception of the income of the Wide Street Board, is disposed of by the Grand Jury. There is no municipal police, nor night watch of any kind. The turnkeys employed in the goal and bridewell, twenty-five in number, are the only force for the preservation of the peace supported by the corporation. The corporation is one of those subject to the 'New Rules' of 25 Ch. II. The number of the constabulary in the county of the city of Cork on the 1st January, 1836, was-chief constables. 2; constables, 11; sub-constables, 62; horses, 6: expense for 1835, 26327. 6s., whereof 12607. 198. 5d. chargeable against the corporation of the city. The convict establishment at Cork consists of a penitentiary, or convict depôt, at Cork, and a hulk at Cove. In 1834, the number of committals to the depôt was 284, and the expense 18997. 2s. 8d.: and the number of committals to the hulk at Cove, 441, and the expense, 28867. 108. Of the charitable institutions the principal is the Foundling Hospital, originally intended as a workhouse. The Act which founds the institution has a clause permitting the reception of exposed children, and of this advantage has been taken to turn the institution solely to that pur pose. In 1833 the number of children at nurse was 1319, and those within the walls 446. All are educated as Protestants. The hospital derives its income from a tax of one shilling per ton on all coals that come into the harbour. This impost is collected to a distance of twelve miles from the city. In 1833 it averaged upwards of 6000l. per annum. Skiddy's Almshouse, Bertridge's charity, the Blue Cont Hospital, and Green Coat Hospital, are other charitable foundations under the control of the corporation. Relief is extended from these solely to Protestants. The house of industry is supported by voluntary contributions and city anu county Grand Jury presentments. Income in 1833, 493 18. 10d. Paupers admitted same year, 1850. Attached is a lunatic asylum supported by county and city Grand Jury presentments. Account presented in 1833, 48907. Number of patients, 343. An hospital with 140 beds is attached There are also two infirmaries and a Fever Hospital; but the accommodation is still far from being sufficient. A sum of 30,000l. was, in 1833, bequeathed by a Mr. Lapp for the support of the aged Protestant poor of the city. The city rental is estimated at 122,0007. on an allowance of 25 per cent. under real value. The number of the distressed population is very great. In 1832 it was estimated that of a city population of 86,534, 23,021 were depending on casual employment for subsistence; of these, 6250 were considered to be destitute. Poverty at present prevails to a frightful extent in the suburbs. The main street which crosses from north to south, perpendicular to the length of the island, is the most antient part of the city. It was formerly divided into north and south by a bridge and castle. The Exchange, a heavy square building, stands on the site of the latter. The old castle and gates which terminated this street have been removed, as also the prisons subsequently built upon their sites. The island was formerly intersected by numerous canals, which have been arched over from time to time, and now form the principal modern streets. The Grand Parade was thus formed in 1780; Patrick Street, in like manner, in 1783; and Nile Street in 1795. The South Mall, the best street in Cork, and Nelson's Place, had likewise a similar origin. The insular appearance of the central part of the city is thus in great measure removed. Cork now covers a large extent of high ground on both banks of the Lee, as well as the low ground which was formerly occupied by marshes between. The greater part of these marshes were drained about 1720-30. The parish of St. Paul was formed of these marshes, and the church of St. Paul built on the reclaimed land in 1723. About the same time the cathedral, which had suffered in the late siege, was rebuilt, as also Christchurch, for a like reason. St. Anne's Shandon was rebuilt in 1722, and St. Peter's in 1782. The appearance of the city is materially affected by an unsightly variety of colours, arising from the different sorts of building materials employed. One side of the steeple of St. Ann's, or Upper Shandon Church, has been built of red sandstone, and the other three of dark limestone. New quays are being constructed, which add much to the convenience and beauty of the city. Mr. Inglis calls Cork a very fine city, surpassed by few in the excellence or width of its streets, and deficient only in the architectural beauty of its public buildings.' Three large Roman Catholic chapels of cut stone are building; and the court-house, now in hand, is to cost 16,000Z. Since the termination of the late war, the trade of Cork has, in some measure, changed its character. Owing to the cessation of government contracts there is no longer the same field for great mercantile houses; the number of minor dealers has increased proportionately. The carriage trade from England is at present very brisk from the smaller traders supplying themselves direct from London or Bristol. The chief import trade is that of timber, of which the annual average is 15,000 tons. The chief export trade is in bacon, butter, corn, live stock, and provisions. Cork butter holds a very high character in the market, chiefly owing, it is said, to the superior cooperage of the casks. The export of bacon and live-stock is on the increase. The manufacture of glass, metal castings, and iron-work, is carried on briskly. Leather is manufactured to the value of 100,000l. per annum. A woollen manufacture gives employment to about 200 persons. There are numerous and very extensive distilleries and breweries, and a large manufacture of flour and meal. Merchant vessels unload at Passage, about six miles from the city, from which goods are transported in lighters of about thirty tons to the quays. The amount of Customs collected in the district of Cork for the year 1835 was 216,4467. 1s. 7d.; and of Excise duty for the same district, 252,4527. 14s. 5§d. The number of stamps issued to newspapers in Cork in 1835, was Cork Constitution Cork Evening Herald 150,675 58,350 Cork Southern Reporter 189,700 People's Press 12,628 Mercantile Chronicle 30,001 TABLE OF POPULATION. 8,100 No return. No return. No return. No return. No return. No return. 73,000 In 1834 there were in the nineteen parishes compre- | hended, wholly or in part, within the county of the city of Cork, 139 schools, educating 5935 males and 4489 females; total children under instruction, 10,424. Of these schools, 26 give gratuitous instruction; several of these are under the management of religious sects. The Cork library, which was founded in 1807, owes its origin to the exertions of the Rev. Doctor Hincks, and formerly enjoyed an annual parliamentary grant. There is also a Mechanics' Institute, with a school for 120 children. (Smith's History of the County of Cork; Inglis's Ireland; Croker's Sketches in the South of Ireland, London, 1823; Parliamentary Reports and Papers.) CORMORANT. [PELECANIDE.] CORN-TRADE. From a very early period of our history the corn-trade of the country has been the subject of legislative interference and restriction. At first, and while the kingdom was thinly peopled, it was deemed good policy, in order to insure a sufficient supply of food for its inhabitants, to forbid the exportation of corn, while its importation was freely permitted; but, in later times, during which the population has increased with a rapidity rarely seen in longsettled countries, the policy of the legislature has been altogether different. The object has been to stimulate home production by prohibiting importation, or by restricting it in such a degree as to secure to the native farmers a monopoly of the home market. It needs no argument now to show that the policy of our ancestors was ill calculated to insure the end which they had in view, that of providing a Return incomplete. sufficiency of cheap food for the common people; how far the opposite policy has been found to answer the avowed object of its advocates it is not our present intention to inquire. That object professes to have for its ultimate aim the securing of a constant sufficiency of a principal article of food, independent of all foreign countries, by means which shall insure to the home grower an adequate return for the capital and skill employed. 6 The earliest statute extant upon this subject is the 34th Edw. III., c. 20, passed in 1360-61, by which it is enacted, that the passage of corn shall be prohibited in all the ports of England, so that none have licence nor warrant to pass with such corn in anywise, unless it be to Calais or Gascoigne, or to other special places which it behoveth that the king cause to be furnished with the corn of England, and that at his own ordinance and licence.' The phraseology of this act has led to the supposition that exportation was previously illegal, except with a licence from the king, and that the object in framing this law was to define and restrict the royal prerogative in this particular. In 1394 another act was passed (17 Richard II., c. 7) of a somewhat contrary tendency. By this new law licence is granted by the king-such are the terms of the act- to all his liege people of his realm of England, to ship and carry corn out of the said realm, to what parts that please them, except to his enemies, paying the subsidies and devoirs thereof due, notwithstanding any ordinance, proclamation, or any defence (prohibition) made before this time to the contrary; nevertheless he will that his council may restrain the said passage when they shall think best for the profit of the realm.' This, act was confirmed in 1425 by the act 4 Henry VI., c. 5. Eleven years later it was thought necessary to fix a limit in regard to price at which the liberty to export should cease, and that limit was declared (15 Henry VI., c. 2) to be 6s. 8d. per quarter for wheat and 3s. per quarter for barley. This act was passed for only a limited time, and had expired, when, in 1441, on the meeting of parliament, it was renewed in the following terms: Our sovereign lord the king, forasmuch as this statute is not now in his force, and that many counties adjoining to the sea may not sell the substance of their corn but by carriage and bringing by the sea, hath ordained, that the statute and ordinance aforesaid, now expired, shall begin to hold his force at the Feast of the Nativity of our Lady next ensuing, and shall endure from thence till the parliament next to be holden after the same feast, so that a parliament be holden within ten years next ensuing after the first beginning of this present parliament, and if so that there be no parliament holden within the same ten years, that then it shall continue and endure till the end of the same ten years: in 1444 this act was ordained to be perpetual, and stand in his force for ever' (23 Henry VI., c. 5). attend the regulation than the prohibition of the trade. In 1562 an alteration in the law was made, by enlarging the limits of the prices which governed exportation, and these were fixed at 10s. per quarter for wheat, 88. for rye, and 6s. 8d. for barley; and nine years later it was enacted (13 Eliz., c. 13) that corn might be exported on payment of certain specified duties at all times when no proclamation had been issued to the contrary. The law of 1463 had all this time been in existence, prohibiting importation while the prices of wheat, rye, and barley should be under 6s. 8d., 48., and 38. respectively; but the prices that had for some time prevailed rendered this law inoperative, and the law of 13 Elizabeth therefore gave virtual freedom to the trade in corn. In the succeeding reigns and up to that of William and Mary this system was continued, but accompanied by various modifications as regards the limiting prices and the rates of duty chargeable. The prices at which export was permitted were from time to time enlarged, until, in 1670, wheat might be shipped away at any time when the price did not exceed 53s. 4d. per quarter. At the same time import duties were imposed, so heavy as to amount to a prohibition, the object of these regulations being to keep the price of wheat always as high as 53s. 4d. per quarter for the advantage of the land-owners. Not satisfied, however, with this degree of favour, this powerful class succeeded in 1689 in secured the payment of a bounty amounting to 5s. per quarter on the exportation of wheat when the price did not exceed 48s. per quarter; and bounties according to the same scale were granted for the export of barley and other grain. Not content with interposing obstacles to a free trade in corn with other countries, our ancestors thought fit to place restrictions upon that trade within the kingdom. It was imagined that if the consumers could be brought to deal immediately with the growers, the profit of intermediate dealers would be saved. Under this impression, both parties looked unfavourably upon those dealers, the sellers imagining that they could obtain better prices and the buyers that they could purchase cheaper but for the middlemen, while the common people were easily led to believe that the dearths which then frequently occurred were attri and withdrawing it from the market. An act was passed, declaring it to be an offence to buy corn in one market with intent to sell it again in another, and persons guilty of this offence, to which the name of engrossing was given, were punished with imprisonment and the pillory. By a statute of Elizabeth, no person was permitted to convey corn from one part of the kingdom to another, unless he had a licence for the purpose, the right of granting or withholding which was confided to the magistrates in quarter sessions. These restrictions were modified in 1624, and by the act 15 Charles II., c. 7, the engrossing of corn was made legal, whenever the price of wheat did not exceed 488. per quarter. So recently as the year 1800, when the price of wheat exceeded 1008. per quarter, engrossing however has been held to be an offence at common law, and a corn-dealer was convicted of it, but was not brought up for judgment. The limited permission thus given to export their produce must be attributed to the increasing power of the land owners; and it may be taken as evidence that the cost of production in this kingdom was at least equally mode-procuring an act (1 William and Mary, c. 12) whereby they rate with the cost in neighbouring countries, that in all this time no attempt was made to prohibit or restrict the importation of the produce of other countries. Such a restriction was however imposed in 1463 by the statute 3 Edward IV., c. 2, which on the plea that the labourers and occupiers of husbandry within this realm of England be daily grievously endamaged by bringing of corn out of other lands and parts into this realm of England, when corn of the growing of this realm is at a low price,' enacts that no person, from the feast of Saint John the Baptist next ensuing, shall bring into England any wheat, rye, or barley, not of English or Irish growth, unless the price of wheat shall exceed 6s. 8d. the quarter, that of rye 48., and that of barley 38., on pain of forfeiture of the grain.' The statutes here mentioned, by which the prices were established at which the importation and exportation of corn were respec-butable to the practices of the dealers in buying up corn tively to cease, continued in force until 1534, when a new act (25 Henry VIII., c. 2) prohibits, except by licence from the crown, the exportation of grain, the reason for which alteration is thus quaintly expressed in the preamble to the act: Forasmuch as dearth, scarcity, good, cheap, and plenty of cheese, butter, capons, hens, and other victuals necessary for men's sustenance, riseth and chanceth of so many and divers occasions that it is very hard and difficile to put any certain prices to any such things, no person or persons, unless it be by licence under the king's great seal, from henceforth shall carry or convey any corn, beeves, muttons, veals, porks, or any other of the above said victuals to any parts beyond the sea, except only for the victualling the towns of Calais, Guinnes, and the marches of the same, and except for victualling of ships passing the seas. The civil wars which preceded the accession of Henry VII. had caused much land to be thrown out of cultivation, and the act of 1534 was probably occasioned by the consequent diminution of produce, but this attempt failed, as it necessarily must, to increase the supply of grain, which effect would best have been brought about by a removal of all restriction. Such a course would have ill agreed with the imperfect ideas upon such subjects which then prevailed; but as the evil was increased during the next 17 years, and it was thought necessary to apply some remedy, the statute 5 and 6 Edward VI., c. 5, was then passed. This statute is entitled, An act for the maintenance and increase of tillage and corn,' and it enacts that thenceforth at least as much land should be tilled in every parish as had been under the plough at any time since the accession of Henry VIII., under a penalty, to be exacted from the parish, of 58. for every acre that should be deficient. The general permission to export grain, which had been taken away in 1534, was restored in 1554 (1 and 2 Philip and Mary, c. 5) whenever the prices were at or under 68. 8d. per quarter for wheat, 48. for rye, and 38. for barley. The preamble to his act makes it appear that it was passed, not in conseee of the prevalence of any sounder views of public y, but because it was found impossible to prevent tion, and it was thought that better success would The act of 1689 was modified in 1773, by reducing to 448. per quarter the price at which the payment of bounty was to cease, and in 1815 the granting of bounty was discontinued by law. In fact no bounty could have been claimed at any time after 1792, in which particular year the average price for the whole year was below the price fixed in 1773. At that time (1773) importation was permitted upon payment of the nominal duty of 6d. per quarter whenever the price should be above 488. This permission was cons:dered injurious to their interests by the landowners, who, on the plea that the country might become dependent upon foreign countries for its supply of food, succeeded in 1791 in obtaining an act whereby the price at which importation was allowed at 6d. per quarter was raised to 54s., a duty of 2s. 6d. was imposed when the price was between 50s, and 548., and 24s. 3d. per quarter was charged when the price was below 50s. A new law, passed in 1804, shifted the price at which the prohibitory duty of 24s. 3d. was charged to 638.; between that price and 66s. the duty was 28. Ed; and above 66s., only 6d. per quarter. Under the act of 1791 the maritime counties of England were divided into twelve districts, and importation and exportation were regu lated in each district by their respective prices, but in 1804 this plan was altered, and the aggregate average of the twelve districts was taken as the measure for regulating importation and exportation to and from the kingdom. A bill for raising the duties on importation, which was brought into the House of Commons in 1814, met with so much opposition that it was abandoned; but in the following year an act was passed, after great opposition, and exciting great clamour on the part of the people, allowing the free importation of corn from foreign countries, in order to be warehoused or re-exported, but forbidding the importation for consumption, unless the average prices were, for wheat 80s.; for rye, pease and beans, 53s.; for barley 40s. and for oats 26s. Every description of corn might be brought for consumption from the British colonies, when the prices were, for wheat 678., rye, peas, and beans 44s., barley 33s., and oats 22s. The deficient harvests of 1816 and 1817 raised the prices above these limits, and so much grain was imported free of duty that a considerable surplus was left for future and more abundant years. One of these years of abundance occurred in 1822, and during the next twelve months the prices of grain fell below what they had been in any year since 1792. It was expected, on the part of the land-owners, that the effect of the act of 1815 would have been to keep the price of wheat steady at or about 80s. per quarter, but this expectation was so far from being realised, that, if we except the year of scarcity already mentioned, the average price of the period which elapsed before the system of prohibition was exchanged for that of a graduated duty in 1829, was only 588. 5d. per quarter. In the mean time, by an act passed in 1823, the law of 1815 was modified so as to allow of importation whenever the prices were, for wheat 70s., for rye, peas, and beans 46s., for barley 35s., and for oats 25s. per quarter, but a duty of 178. a quarter for wheat (and other rates in proportion for other grain) was to be payable during the first three months of importation, and 128., &c. thereafter the prices of corn were never such during its continuance as to bring this act into operation. In 1825 the importation of wheat from the English colonies in North America was legalised upon payment of a duty of 5s. per quarter, without reference to the price in the English market. In 1826, a long continued drought caused great apprehensions concerning the coming harvests, and in order to prevent the opening of the ports to fresh importations, and the consequent probable admission of a quantity of corn beyond the actual wants of the country, by which prices would have been affected perhaps for years after, permission was given to the government to admit by proclamation 500,000 quarters of foreign wheat then warehoused in the kingdom. The inconvenience of the system of alternate prohibition and unlimited importation was at length fully recognised by all parties, and in 1829 the act was passed (9 Geo. IV. c. 60) by which the trade in corn has since been regulated. The principle of this act is the constant freedom of importation upon the payment of duties fluctuating according to the average price of grain, decreasing as the price advances, and increasing as the price falls. The following table exhibits the scale of duties graduated according to the average prices of the different kinds of grain. WHEAT. 23 8 22 8 21 8 20 8 63 64 64 65 65 66 66 67 68 69 69 70 71 18 8 16 8 13 8 10 8 BARLEY. When the price shall be- per qr. When the price shall be 33s. and 62s. and under 63s. per qr.. 24s. 8d. under 34s. per quarter, 12s. 44. per quarter duty; and in respect of every integral shilling by which such price shall be above 33s., such duty shall be decreased by 1s. 6d., until such price shall be 41s, and whenever the price shall be at or above 41s., the duty shall be 1s. per quarter. Whenever the price shall be under 33s. and not 6 8 under 32s., 13s. 10d.; and in respect of 2 0 each integral shilling, or any part of 1 0 each integral shilling, by which such under 62s, and not under 61s. 25 8 price shall be under 32s, the duty and in respect of each integral shilling, shall be increased by Is. 6d. per or any part of such integral shilling, by which such price shall be under 61s., such duty shall be increased by 1s., RYE, PEASE, AND BEANS. When the price shall be 36s, and When the price shall be 25s. and under 37s. per quarter, 15s. 6d. per under 26s. per qr., 9s. 3d. duty; and quarter, and in respect of every inin respect of every integral shilling tegral shilling by which the price by which such price shall be above shall be above 36s., the duty shall be 25s.. such duty shall be decreased by decreased by 1s. 6d. until such price 1s. 6d. until such price shall be 31s shall be 46s. When the price shall Whenever the price shall be above be at or above 46s., Is. When the 31s, the duty shall be 1s. Whenever price shall be under 36s. and not under such price shall be under 25s. and not 35s. per quarter, 16s. 9d.; and in reunder 24s., 10s. 9d.; and in respect of spect of each integral shilling, or any each integral shilling, or any part of part of each integral shilling, by which each integral shilling, by which such such price shall be under 35s., the price shall be under 245., the duty shall duty shall be increased by 1s. 6d. per Se increased by Is. 6d. quarter, 0 6 Meal or flour, the produce of each different kind of grain, is admitted at rates of duty equivalent to those chargeable on each kind of grain respectively. In calcumeal or flour are deemed to be equivalent to one quarter lating such duties the following quantities by weight of of grain, viz. Wheat-meal or flour, 392 lbs.; barley meal, bean-meal, and meal of maize or Indian corn, 384 lbs.; rye-meal, 424 lbs.; and oatmeal, 176 lbs. the trade in corn has been and is regulated in this country, Having thus offered a brief sketch of the laws by which it remains to be shown what has been the course and extent of that trade during the period for which authentic records exist. estimate the consumption of this kind of food within the Various attempts have been made at different times to kingdom, but in the absence of any machinery for that purpose, such estimates must always partake of a great degree of uncertainty. The following estimate of the produce of England about the close of the seventeenth century, was made by Mr been received with much confidence. At that time wheat Geoffrey King, whose statistical calculations have usually formed a much smaller proportion of the food of the English people than it does at present. The quantities here assumed were not all consumed within the kingdom, a part being exported under the Bounty Act, as hereafter stated. Mr. Charles Smith, the author of the celebrated Tracts on the Corn Trade,' estimated that the six millions of inhabitants, then supposed to be living in England and Wales, consumed annually 3,750,000 quarters of wheat, 1,016,125 barley, 999,000 rye, 1,791,125 oats-and that there were besides used annually within the kingdom— 90,000 quarters wheat-distilled, and made into starch 3,300,000 barley--made into beer; pease for sailors, &c.; rape and other seed-for obtaining oil. The aggregate of these quantities makes up nearly 50 per cent. more than the estimate of Mr. King, without making any allowance for the shipments to foreign countries, which, at that time, averaged about 1,500,000 bushels annually, and not taking into account the quantity required for seed, which must have amounted to about as much as the exports. Dr. Colquhoun estimated the average annual consump- · tion of the United Kingdom in 1812, as follows |