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Their capacity being known, and the number of revolutions being recorded by a train of wheel-work outside the box, the quantity of gas which passes through is exactly indicated. The largest meters pass about 650 cubic feet by one revolution of the drum, or about 70,000 cubic feet in an hour.

inch of water in every 30 feet, renders it important in hilly towns to have governors upon different levels. In high buildings a very sensible difference is perceived in the force with which the gas issues from the burners on the different stories. This involves a waste of gas where the pressure is great, for under such conditions à considerable portion of that consumed adds little to the illuminating effect. Various governors or regulators have been devised for the use of consumers with a view of producing an increase of light with reduced consump tion of gas; and when judiciously applied, some of them, as Kidder's and Stirling's, have proved very successful. The latter has been introduced into some of the public buildings of New York city, controlled by the Street Department, and according to the report of the Street Commissioner, the saving has been in many instances very remarkable.

Each consumer of gas is supplied with a meter, which is under the control of the gas company; and from its indications the amount furnished is determined by inspection every month.

The gas-holders are the large cylindrical vessels of plate iron, the most conspicuous objects at the gas works. Each one is set with its open end down, and immersed in a cistern of water of diameter a little exceeding its own. It is buoyed up by the water, and also counterbalanced by weights passing over pulleys. The gas admitted under the inverted cylinder lifts this up, and fills all the portion above the water. The weight of the cylinder when the influx is shut off, and the discharge pipes are opened presses the gas out and through the mains to the points where it is consumed. The gas-holders of the largest works are of immense size. In Philadelphia, there is one 160 feet in diameter and 95 feet high, holding 1,800,000 cubic feet of gas. Even this is exceeded by one at the Imperial Gas Company's works, London, which is 201 feet in diameter, 80 Though in the use of gas the consumer is feet high, and of the capacity of 2,500,000 in a great measure dependent on the manucubic feet. This cost upward of $200,000; facturer as regards the economy of the light, and contains 1500 tons of iron, 5000 cubic there are several points, by giving personal feet of stone work, and 2,000,000 bricks. attention to which, he may more fully realNo advantage is gained in a single structure ize the saving it affords. In the first place, of this immense size over several smaller he must be aware that every one employing ones. On the contrary, this involves heavy this source of light uses it more freely than expenditures to protect them against the that derived from lamps and candles. It is force of the wind, and render them manage- enjoyed with so little trouble and apparent able. Those of great height are made in cost, that much more light is soon regarded sections, which shut one within another in essential, than was perfectly satisfactory undescending, like the parts of a telescope. der the old methods of producing it. He As each section is lifted in turn out of the should next see that the area of the delivery water, its lower edge, which is turned up in pipe bears such proportion to the quantity an outward direction, forming an annular usually required, that there is no undue prescup, includes a portion of water, into which sure upon the burners, as is evident when the upper edge of the next lower section the gas "blows" through them as it burns. catches, being turned over inward for this This should be checked by shutting off a purpose. A gas-tight joint between the two part of the supply by means of the stop-cock sections is thus formed. at the meter; and this should be looked to To insure uniformity of pressure, as the after every visit of the gas man to the meter. gas enters the mains it is first made to pass The regulator also is intended to remedy through the apparatus called a governor, in this over supply, but it may still be neceswhich, according to the force or slowness sary to keep part of the gas turned off, and with which it moves, it causes a valve to rise by so doing the regulator may be dispensed and partially close an aperture within the machine through which the gas flows, or to descend and open this aperture. The increase of pressure as the gas is carried to higher levels, amounting to one fifth of an

with. Attention should next be directed to the burners, that those of largest size, such as consume with the ordinary pressure six feet or more of gas an hour, should be placed only where the greatest quantity of light is

required, and that burners of four feet, three feet, two feet, or even one foot an hour, be placed where the light they give will be sufficient. The burners called Scotch tips, giving what is called the fish-tail flame, are in common use, but a great variety of others have been contrived, and some of them are highly recommended for affording more light with the same amount of gas. All, however, are liable to become foul after a time, and should be occasionally cleaned or replaced. The iron of which they are made is corroded by the ingredients of the gas, especially when not in use, and air entering its elements form acid compounds with those of the gas which remain in the open portion of the pipe. The argand burner is recommended for the powerful and steady light it gives, but it is far from being economical, and moreover produces great heat. For a steady light Gleason's "American gas-burner" combines the advantages of brilliant light, steadiness of flame, and moderate consumption.

The quality of gas is determined either by analysis, or more conveniently by testing with the photometer its comparative capacity of producing light. The standard adopted for comparison is spermaceti candles, each one burning 120 grains in an hour. An argand burner consuming five feet of gas an hour (the quantity carefully proved by the meter) is used in making the trial; and the number of candles required to produce an equal amount of light indicates the quality of the gas. At the points of consumption this is sometimes inferior to that of the gas at the works before it enters the gas-holders and passes through the mains; but in very cold weather, by the condensation of the richest hydrocarbon vapor in the pipes, the gas that reaches the burners is poorer than that which left the works. Consequently these facts should be taken into consideration in estimating the quality of gas furnished by any establishment. Again, after a period of excessive cold weather, when the gas has burned dimly by the condensation of its best portions in the pipes-it may be to the extent at times of obstructing the flow through them—and with the return of milder weather the vapors are released and mix with the new gas, they sometimes so overburden this with an undue proportion of the richest compounds, that with the ordinary burners the gas cannot be consumed, and the result is a smoky flame, of which the consumers make great complaint, believing it to be

caused by inferior gas. Such are some of the causes, over which the manufacturers have no control, that involve more or less irregularity in the quality of the gas supplied. The gas produced at different works is of various qualities. That of the Manhattan Gas Light Company is rated at sixteen candles, and is probably as good as any furnished in our cities. It is tested daily with the photometer at their office, at the corner of Irving Place and Fifteenth street, New York. In England, the gas of the London works varies from eleven to eighteen candles. That of Liverpool is much better, sometimes being equal to twenty-two candles.

Other materials than coal have been applied to some extent in the United States for producing gas, chiefly for small supplies for single buildings. The most successful of these processes is that with rosin oil. The apparatus is exceedingly simple, and is placed in an apartment in an out-building. It consists of a stove containing a chamber in the top, into which the rosin oil is allowed to drop slowly. It is decomposed by the heat of the surface upon which it falls, and the gaseous products pass immediately through the pipes into the gas-holder, whence they are distributed as at the large gas works. The supply for a week may be made in less than an hour with very little attention from the person in charge. The gas is superior to that from coal, and the expense, not reckoning the cost of the gas-holder and the apparatus, is less than the price ordinarily paid for gas.

In Philadelphia wood has been successfully used at the Market street bridge works. Six retorts have been kept in operation with it for some time, and the yield and quality of the gas have proved very satisfactory. As in the use of coal, it is found necessary to charge the material into retorts already at a high heat, otherwise the gaseous products have little illuminating power. Gas thus made from pine wood has been found to contain 10.57 per cent. of olefiant gas, and that from oak 6.46 per cent.

HYDROCARBON GAS.-What is known as the hydrocarbon or water gas manufacture was introduced into Philadelphia in 1858, and according to the published reports, its application to lighting a portion of the Girard House in that city, proved for several months perfectly satisfactory. It was introduced into the town of Aurora, Indiana, in January, 1861, and according to the statements pub

ied, in 1860, in a pamphlet entitled "The Water Gas Correspondence." They contained nothing, however, to determine the real merits of the gas.

GAS FOR STEAMBOATS AND RAILROAD

lished in the Cincinnati Daily Commercial, competent chemist. In Philadelphia, the the operation had been very successful. | subject has given rise to a newspaper conThe light is described as very brilliant, and troversy, and the publications were embodthe gas almost free from odor. The process appears to be similar to that of Mr. White, of Manchester, England, which consists in the generation of the non-illuminating gases by the action of steam upon charcoal highly heated in a retort, the aqueous vapor being CARS.--Several methods have recently been thereby decomposed, and various gaseous put in practice of furnishing gas for the concompounds produced by its hydrogen and venience of passengers in steam vessels, or oxygen combining with the carbon of the upon railroads. One plan is to place in the charcoal. If the operation is properly con- boats or under the cars large cases of sheet ducted these compounds should be almost iron, each one provided with a diaphragm entirely carbonic oxide and free hydrogen; or partition of india-rubber across its upper if carbonic acid is produced, as it may well portion. A connection being made between be, even to the extent of one per cent., it the receptacle under the diaphragm and the may involve the expense of purification by street main, the gas fills this portion of the means of a lime purifier. These gases are case and the connection is then shut off. immediately passed through another retort, When required for use, the gas is forced out in which the illuminating gases are genera- by the pressure of air uniformly applied upon ted, and mixing with them the whole is im- the upper surface of the india-rubber sheet mediately swept forward out of the reach of by means of a meter running by clock work. the high decomposing temperature. The This method has so far been successful; but material employed for furnishing the illumi- danger is apprehended by some that atmosnating gas is either rosin or rosin oil gadual-pheric air may find its way through the ly dropped into the heated retort; and it is flexible sheets, all of which are more or less stated that various other carbonaceous sub-permeable when used to separate different stances, as the tar from the gas works and gaseous compounds, and that an explosive cheap greasy compounds, may be economically applied.

mixture may thus be introduced. By another plan of a New York company, the gas by means of force pumps is compressed into strong cylindrical gas-holders made like the boilers of steam engines. The gas is thus made to occupy a diminished space in proportion to the pressure used, that of 20 atmospheres placing 1000 cubic feet of gas in 50 feet space. In Jersey City, where this method has been applied to furnishing gas for railroad cars, the pressure employed is about 450 lbs. upon the square inch. Under this pressure the gas is conveyed through pipes to the points where the cars receive from them their supplies. The gas by its elasticity presses through the burners, and uniformity of discharge while this force is constantly diminishing is secured by a gov ernor or regulator constructed on the principle already described.

Although this method of producing gas has been highly recommended by eminent English authorities, especially by Dr. Frankland, an account of whose experiments and conclusions is given in the recent edition of Ure's Dictionary (London, 1860), vol. i., p. 778, it has not been adopted by gas companies, whose first interest it would be to avail themselves of such improvements, and it is reasonable to suppose there are some insuperable objections to it. Indeed, in the last edition of Clegg's "Treatise upon the Manufacture and Use of Gas," the subject is passed by with scarcely any notice, although it had been in the previous edition treated in detail and with commendation. In the English Gas Journal, it is decidedly condemned. No analyses of the gas thus produced in this country have ever been pub- GAS FOR FUEL.-Besides its use for prolished, nor any reports of photometrical ex-ducing light, gas has lately been applied to periments that might establish its light-giv- other domestic purposes for the sake of the ing capacity. As the subject for some time heat it can be made to afford in burning. It attracted much attention, and has given rise was thus first used by chemists, and mechanto extravagant expectations of cheap pro- ics, as bookbinders, then applied duction of gas, it is very desirable that such able stoves to the heating of such tools as trials and reports should be made by some they required of a high temperature. After

this stoves were contrived on different plans
in which various culinary operations might
be conducted, and some also for warming
rooms. Though it would appear to be an
expensive fuel, it has been found for many
purposes,
in which only a certain amount of
heat is required, and this for a short time,
not merely exceedingly convenient, but even
economical. No more need be consumed
than is required to effect the desired pur-
pose, and it is moreover applied directly to
the object to be heated with little dispersion
or waste of heat. But for warming rooms, it
is objectionable, not only on account of its
cost, but also from its vitiating the atmos-
phere by the large amount of the noxious
gases produced by its combustion. If these
are conveyed away by ventilating flues, they
carry with them a considerable portion of
the caloric set free. No doubt when gas is
afforded at lower rates, means will be devised
of applying it more advantageously to this

purpose.

CHAPTER XI.

HYDROCARBON OR COAL OILS.

The success attained

In other towns the number of ships had fallen
off as follows: Nantucket, to 33 from 85; Sag
Harbor, to 20 from 43; Warren, R. I., to 15
from 21, etc. At Fairhaven, 46 ships were
owned at both periods. The manufacture of
lard oil, which of late years has been exten-
sively carried on in the Western states, failed
to meet the increasing demands, when at last
attention began to be directed to the extrac-
tion of oils from the bituminous coals and
shales, by processes of recent introduction in
France and England.
by Mr. James Young, of Glasgow, in his treat-
ment of the "Torbane Hill mineral," or Bog-
head cannel of Scotland, served more than
any thing else to give encouragement to this
enterprise. In 1854, according to the testi-
mony of this practical chemist, in a lawsuit
in London, he was producing about 8000
gallons a week of an oil he called paraffine
oil, which sold for 5s. a gallon, the sales
amounting in all to about $500,000 per an-
num, of which the greater portion was profit.
Operations of a similar character had for
some time previously been conducted upon
a large scale at Autun, Department of the
Saone and Loire, in France; the materials
employed being highly bituminous shales,
probably not essentially different from the
Torbane Hill mineral, except in producing
much less oil to the ton.

NOTWITHSTANDING the substitution in the cities and most of the towns of considerable size throughout the country of gas for oils, the demand for the latter has increased much The first factory for making coal oil in the faster than the supply, as is shown by the United States was established on Newtown price for sperm oil being now more than Creek, Long Island, opposite New York city, three times what it was in 1843, when it and commenced operations in June, 1854. brought about fifty-five cents per gallon. This was known as the Kerosene Oil Works, Besides its use for illuminating purposes, and was designed to work the Boghead canthe consumption of oil is enormous for nel, or coal of similar character from the lubricating machinery. The railroads and province of New Brunswick, or from the steamboats, and the increasing numbers of West, by the patented process of Mr. Young. large factories, demand such quantities of it In Kentucky, Ohio, Virginia, and Pennsyl that all the ordinary sources of supply were vania cannel coals were found of suitable overtasked, and the whaling business former- qualities for this manufacture; and in 1856 ly so prosperous in New England, has fallen the Breckenridge Coal Oil Works were in sucoff in the face of advancing prices, or been cessful operation at Cloverport, on the Ohio forced to gather itself in fewer centres, where river, in Breckenridge county, Ky. The same by concentration of its operations the busi-year a factory was built in Perry county, ness could be conducted with the greatest economy. From many seaports of New England this business has quite disappeared, and the following changes in others are reported to have taken place between the years 1843 and 1859. In the former period New Bedford had 214 whale ships, and in 1859 the number had increased to 316. In New London, Conn., the number had increased from 45 to 56, and in Mattapoiset from 11 to 19.

Ohio, by Messrs. Dillie and Robinson, and others rapidly sprung up in the vicinity of Newark, which soon became an important centre of this new business. In 1858, several large factories were built in New England, one in Boston, and one in Portland, Maine. It is doubtful whether Young was the first inventor or discoverer of this, for as we shall see, the late Baron von Reechenbach had many years before distilled some

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TABLE OF THE COAL OIL WORKS OF THE UNITED STATES.

State.

Town or county.

Maine,

Portland.

Name of works.

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New York,

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Newtown Creek, L. I..
Hunter's Point, L. I.

.Kerosene Oil Company.

1

4000

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