MARCH 20, 1891 ENGLISH MECHANIC AND WORLD OF SCIENCE: No. 1356. The English Mechanic AND WORLD OF SCIENCE AND ART. FRIDAY, MARCH 20, 1891. HIGH-POWER BATTERIES. the bichromate and other batteries of oxidant. measured the resistances in I give a table of the various substances. I RESISTANCE OF BATTERY LIQUIDS. 1. Sulphuric acid 1, water 12, vols.. 3. water 10 4. Potash bichromate sat. sol... 5. 6. Soda bichromate sat. sol.. 7. same vol. H2SO.. s. Chromic acid, Sullivan's, 1,000 9, Chromic acid 2,250grs. + lfl.oz. 1.155 195.5 1.353 WORK OF 400 FLUID GRAINS AN 17 པ more staying powers and does more work. | observation, experiment, recordal, reflection, sation." The nitric-acid curve, which extended over Chromic acid, Bottone's Solution 9 and acid. Geology is pre-eminently a science of observa- Upon what are these observations to be made? part. Here are already three words-rock, crust, history he can reason upon deductively as the This crust fossil-needing defining. The crust of the earth is so much of the exterior of the earth as can be upon the actually observed actually observed by man, or whose nature and may be about twenty-five miles thick. result of observations and generalisations made A rock is one of the many kinds of mineral masses that go to make up this crust. includes every kind of mineral substance that enters into the composition of the earth's crust, even though it may not necessarily be hard or stony. Thus sand and clay are, in the geological The student should, in geology, as in other A consideration of these curves, together sciences, make a vocabulary or glossary for him48.7 with a calculation of the relative cost of the self. Such a glossary should be arranged in a several oxidants and of the labour of charging large notebook, alphabetically, at all events as 57-9 and emptying the cells, will save many far as the initial letters are concerned. Four students and experimenters from waste of general headings are required, thus: time and money, and do something towards WORD. giving a clearer understanding of the whole subject of galvanic batteries. 1.454 10. Nitric acid The liquids are prepared as usual for battery purposes, in the carbon cell; the acid for acting on the zinc being provided in the outer vessel of the strength of line 1. The bichromate of potash would require a doubled quantity of acid for use as a single cell. The The soda bichromate, line 7, is a saturated solution allowed to cool and settle, By EDWARD AVELING, D.Sc. Lond., Fellow of as it is not easy to hit the exact proportions, and half its volume of sulphuric acid (strongest OV sp.gr. 1845) added. chromic acid is prepared according to the instructions of the maker-11b. in I pint of water and 7 fluid ounces of sulphuric acid. I plotted the actions in curves shown in the diagram. G words, yn (ge), the earth, and Aoyos (logos), science. It is the science that deals with the Like all the natural history of the earth. what is. It goes on with experiment, and with sciences, geology begins with observation of Then follows reflecThe horizontal line is hours of working, the careful recordal of the results of both obserand the vertical line is the current in tenths vations and experiments. These curves bring out the tion upon these results. The next stage is that of ampère. relative values very forcibly. The bichro- of reasoning, of generalisation, or the induction mate of potash shows its rapid loss by so- of some one or more large and general truths, polarisation; in fact, it is hardly laws, principles, from the mass of observed called sciences, we can reason deductively as to partipossible to measure the early current, it and recorded facts. From any such firmlyWe can, reasoning thus from SO quickly. This is, of course, re-established generalisation in geology, as in other cular facts. falls in various ways; but the very generals, arrive at conclusions as to the partimediable small quantity of work possible justifies the statement that this once-valued salt is now cular conditions and circumstances at particular the future history of the earth, for example. worthless in batteries compared with others times in the past, or foretell in some measure These, then, are the stages through which now to be obtained. geology, like every other natural science, passes; Bichromate of soda and chromic acid run each other very closely; but the acid has VOL. LIII. -No. 1356. WORD. Under head 4 in this particular case, it is not very logical to put anything, unless it were some geological fact, such as that the land is constantly being worn down by wind and rain. But when we come later to the entering in our will become of great importance. In it will b glossary of descriptive terms, the fourth column Of this, and of the importance of this, In the text the derivations (when these shall see more as we go on with our work. On let me once again, before doing this, urge up he meets with e student and teacher the importance, the nece necessary) and definitions and illustrations sity, of everyone constructing his own glossary every technical word used will be given. earnest student will, as will be found a glossary, put together by new word, then and there enter it in vocabulary. And at the conclusion of this se and this the student can compare with his. three words-crust, rock, fossil, given ab may be, as a final illustration for the present, they will find that very little rotatory force on thus entered. CRUST. The part of the exterior of the earth accessible to man, FOSSIL-fossus, dug up.-Remains or ROCK-A mineral constituent of the earth's crust. Trilobite. Granite or jclay. Geology, dealing with the history of the crust of the earth, its rocks and fossils, endeavours, by observation of present conditions, to piece out the earlier conditions that obtained when certain rocks were forming and the plants and animals now represented by fossils were alive. It attempts to reason out the causes that led to such and such formations of rocks, to the preservation of such-and-such organic remains. chase, and fit binding-screw, which is most comthe chuck will have the effect of slightly buckling veniently made capstan-headed, as a tommy the index, allowing thereby a partial rotary or a stout piece of wire are handier than a motion of the mandrels-light, it is true, but there box key or spanner; or, if preferred, a clean nevertheless. As before mentioned, with the hole may be drilled right through lug, and a ornamental drill and the usual light feed, the bolt and nut used for tightening up, but in this above effect would be almost imperceptible; but case a small stud or pin must be screwed in under try with a milling cutter, say, for facing a head of bolt, and a corresponding notch made in polygon, and the result will be at best very one, or either, side of lug, to prevent bolt from chattery. To remedy the above defects the turning. The writer, however, prefers the writer has for many years used a very simple former method. Now, with a good sharp backmethod of holding chucks, and any work held in saw, cut the lug right through, as shown, remove or on them perfectly rigid while being milled, the burr, and put in the binding-screw. Run on planed, slotted, or otherwise wrought. The to the mandrel any old boxwood or other hardapparatus is extremely simple, and can be ap-wood chuck of sufficient diameter to leave a plied with but slight variation to any lathe. It slight shoulder for the carrier to stop against, as consists simply of a kind of carrier of either before mentioned; turn down at back end to ft wrought or malleable cast iron, as shown in carrier, just hand-tight, insert tail end of carrier Figs. 5 and 6. The one this description is taken between the way of shears, close up to the headfrom is of the latter M.C.I., and is fitted to fix stock, then run on chuck so that the carrier on the plate of a 3in. Cushman scroll-chuck, the butts against shoulder, tighten up binding-screw, other chucks, such as cup and bell, having had and with scriber mark the line of lathe-bed on an additional base ring on which the carrier is tail end of carrier, remove from lathe, and prefitted, driven on to them and then soldered. The ceed to drill hole for pushing screw about in. lathe is a 3in. screw-cutting and surfacing, auto- above line, as shown at b, Figs. 5 and 6, taking matic in all cuts. The drawings almost explain care not to go deeper than a little beyond half themselves as to the action; but a little description the thickness; next drill the hole d, parallel to will no doubt assist any of our readers who may lathe axis, and again, as before, with hack-saw Physical geology again may deal especially be desirous of making one. I will assume that the cut through the tail block, from bottom, right with the surface configuration of the earth rought forging or casting, as the case may be, into hole d, tap the hole b carefully, and finish (Physical Geography), or with the composition has been obtained, and proceed. In the first with a sharp plug tap, but not beyond saw-cut; and structure of the rocks and minerals (Miner-place, it will be observed that, as the carrier is of turn up and chase pushing screw, see that it fits alogy or Lithology or Petrology). Aos (lithos), larger radius than whatever lathe it is intended well, re-set it in lathe, and turn down about three a stone; petra, a rock. for, the headstock must, pro tem., be blocked up threads of screw, leaving a small nipple to enter high enough to allow the tail of carrier to clear the farthest half of tail-block beyond the sawthe bed; the slide-rest must be similarly raised. cut. So long as the attention of the student is confined to the rocks or inorganic portion of the crust, so long he is studying physical geology. Quoc (phusis), nature. When he is paying especial attention to the organic remains in the earth's crust, he is studying Palæontology. Talaios (palaios), ancient; wv, ovTos (on, ontos), a being. Paleontology may deal with vegetable remains (Palæophytology or fossil botany), or with animal remains (fossil zoology or Palæozoology). PUTOV (phuton), a plant; or (zoon), an animal. The following table will be of service to the student in understanding the divisions of the science of geology. In this series of articles, as in those on botany, much use will be made of GEOLOGY This being done, clamp the rough carrier by GEOLOGY AND ITS DIVISIONS. Study of the inorganic tables. Only the student should remember that the best tables, like the best glossaries, are those ke himself makes. LATHE ATTACHMENTS.-II. IN a Nood of holding chucks N a former article, Nov. 14th, 1890, mention and chucked work rigidly and solidly in the lathe while being operated on, either by the drilling or cutting frame, or otherwise, as by milling cutters, &c.; and also of a method of cutting key-grooves in wheels, pulleys, &c., or of shaping circular stop work. Most amateurs' lathes, whether ornamental or self-acting and screw-cutting, are provided with a divisionplate, or have the means of applying one. Some, more especially high-class ornamental lathes, are fitted with a tangent-wheel, fast on the mandrel, and a tangent screw, to throw in or out of gear, fast on the headstock; and these alone, at present, have the power of holding the mandrel, together with any work screwed on the nose firmly and without shake, unless indeed, as the writer has seen happen, the chuck worked loose on the nose, which is, however, quite an exceptional case: but in most cases, for any such purpose, the operator has to depend on the division plate and index. No doubt, for very light ornamental cutter work, where the speed of the cutters is high, and the cut very light, the index and division-plate is sufficient, especially when only ivory or hard woods are to be operated on; but in the case of metal-working, such as brass, gun-metal, iron, or steel, the division-plate and index are scarcely reliable for holding power, as the latter, in this case, depends entirely on the hold of the index peg in the necessarily very small hole in the division-plate, and on the rigidity of the index, which is, per se, a spring, and the peg of which generally stands out about gin. Now let any of our readers try the effect of screwing on their largest chuck or their face plate, and locking the mandrel with the index in any hole, and ...... Make the pushing screw-head square to fit an ordinary sized gun-nipple wrench, and enter screw in place. The work may now be considered complete, unless our reader chooses to file it up, draw-file it, and black it. To try its efficiency, glue a long piece of wood on face of chuck already used, and when perfectly dry, mount the whole apparatus on the lathe, having previously put a little chalk on the bearing part of chuck for carrier, tighten up binding-screw, and set up pushing screw till tail end is solidly fixed; then, laying hold of piece of wood glued on chuck, try and rotate it, and our readers will find that for all practical purposes the chuck is immovable. Now, as most work to be milled, planed, or slotted will be held either in a bell or a scroll chuck, or on a face-plate, in the case of the two first it will only be necessary to provide the bell-chuck with a ring driven on and soldered, or pinned through, on which to fit the carrier; in the case of the scroll-chuck, the plate on which it is permanently mounted will answer the Physical Geography. Palæozoology. against the stop-shoulder on chuck-ring. Those FIG A bool & set screw full sme SLOTTING & BORING BAR PACKING 3/4 full Size tight, between the shear-way Next file up the In the case of the face-plate, as the carrier and | practical will be allowed, the writer having on scroll chuck more than any other, as a further mextra ring might be in the way of whatever one occasion (many years ago), after having provement, he has had the base of chuck divided bolts may be used to hold the work, a small bored, flanged, and faced a pair of 2 gig- 180, as shown in Fig. 8, and on the front face of casting of gun-metal, or preferably malleable engines (each on a separate face-plate), by using carrier added a small knife-edged vernier index, C.I., is used by the writer, as shown in Figs. the above method, planed the valve-faces and shown dotted in Fig. 7, so that for the majority of 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, and 8. In the one shown, Figs. milled the seats for the valve-chests, the milling-milling work, such as squares, hexagons, octa7 and 8, the part fitting between the shears is left tool being carried on the same saddle as the gons, &c., he is independent of the division-plate, solid, but is filed to fit with a slight taper; and planing-tool box, working on a vertical slide, which, in his small lathe, is shipped on to the the bolt-holes f and 9 are drawn vertically to having a vertical travel of 3in., and fitting tail end of mandrel, same as a change-wheel, the allow the tail block to wedge tightly between the the vees of the surface slide, the vertical slide index being fixed to the radial arm: this, howshears, and a series of tap-holes round the edge being fitted with the usual up and down feed, ever, he uses only for wheel-cutting. For key of face-plate allows of varying positions of self-acting. Only for milling is the vertical feed grooving, the writer fixes the wheel or pulley work. That this contrivance is efficacious and by hand. As the writer has found that he used the to be grooved either in the scroll chuck or by The patentees describe several methods of joining the ends of the coils, which it is unnecessary to mention here. In order to protect the coil, when made from iron or steel, from FIG:1. FIG:2. been made to remove all these drawbacks, and, after numerous experiments, the following process has been discovered:-By treating chrysanthemum with an alkali, or even simply with a solvent, such as alcohol, ether, essence of turpentine, benzine, paraffin, wax, olive oil, fatty substances, or other suitable hydrocarbon, the active principle is extracted, yielding an insect killer or entomophobe, which, according to the solvent used, acts by being simply strewed about, or sprayed, by means of an atomiser, or even by the combustion of the liquid or grease of wax, paraffin, stearine, and the like, in the form of candles or matches, without causing any of the above described inconveniences. This product is useful against many other insects besides gnats, such as bugs, fleas, flies, and the like. dogs on the face-plate, and uses a tool, held flexible extra tire of two layers of metal-that with maladies of the respiratory organs. Bein the tool-rest, somewhat like an ordinary is to say, really two flexible coils, one wound sides that, the air of rooms is vitiated round-nosed boring tool, but which, instead tightly on the other-for the purpose of ob- thereby, and the products of combustion soil of cutting on top and side, is made as shown taining greater elongating rigidity, and it is curtains and carpets. Efforts have, therefore, in Figs. A and B, and cuts on the inside better to form the inner one of flat metal angle, the tool acting on the pull outwards, coiled on its side, which forms an almost unnot on the push as in the ordinary slotting stretchable coil, while the outer one is formed machine; the saddle being actuated by the of flat or oblong metal coiled on edge; this ordinary rack-and-pinion, or, as the writer forms a coil of great compressible rigidity, prefers, by a lever and connecting-rod attached and the two together form one flexible extra to saddle, and the fulcrum of lever pivoted on to tire which will not materially stretch and a small movable saddle, clamped to any suitable which will not flatten, but which is flexible and position on lathe-bed. The drawings of these is peculiarly suitable for wheels of very large will appear in next article. It is to be noted circumference. that the cutting-edge of slotting-tool is filed to more than a right angle, or obtuse, when used for brass or gun-metal, and the reason for this is, that the smoothness of the cut depends very much on the spring of the tool-shank. An acute edge would cause the tool to dig; but for C.I., W.I., or steel, the cutting-edge is right-angled. The vertical slide is made, at its sliding base, an exact counterpart of the ordinary cross, or surface slide, and it can be used either square to or parallel to lathe-axis. Previously to having the base of scroll-chuck divided, the writer used (and still uses) a transfer division chuck, shown in Figs. 1-4. This is held stationary by the small casting at back of chuck, as shown; by slackening the nuts 1 and 2 the chuck can be rotated, and by altering the positions of the stop 3 and handle 4, any degree of stop-circular work can be operated on. There is a peculiarity in the figuring of the division notches in this tool; inasmuch that each set of notches for polygons, say 8, or octagon, each notch for that figure is figured 8, and so on with the other sets from 0 to 12. By this method there can be no error in counting, unless by absolute carelessness. Many a piece of almost-finished ornamental drill or cutter work has been nearly spoiled, through missing or overcounting a hole on division-plate, and only, sometimes, to be saved from becoming a "waster" by plugging. In the next article the writer will more fully describe the vertical slide and its uses, and also description and drawings of an entirely new form of swivelling cutting-frame for producing gears, mills, and fluted drills, &c., together with the mode of shaping the necessary guide-plates or formers. As there have been lately many inquiries about lathe-mandrels and headstocks, the writer has in the present illustrations shown part of his mandrel and headstock, and a section of his lathe-bed, which some years ago caused a good deal of controversy in the columns of the *E. M." M. FLEXIBLE TIRES FOR CYCLES, &c. FIG:3. e rust, more particularly internally and between In order to render the odour agreeable, any suitable perfume, or camphor, can be added. The following is the practical process for extracting or preparing the entomophobe :A receiver, which can fulfil the function of the extension of an extracting apparatus, is filled with chrysanthemum powder in the proportion of about 30 per cent., to which is added from 15 to 20 per cent. of an alcoholic hydrate, potash, soda, lime, or preferably ammonia. This is allowed to digest during several hours with one of the solvents before enumerated, such as ether, alcohol, benzine, essence of turpentine, or with any other liquid or volatile carburet, and then the exhaustion is completed by means of heat. When the solvent is solid, or an oil, it can le mixed with the liquid obtained by the method described above, in which is contained all the active part, or even the mixture of powder, treated as described above, can be digested in the same by means of heat. Seeing that this active principle is very useful for the destruction of all kinds of insects, experiments have also been made with those affecting plants, and the resul was very satisfactory, but as the prices of alcohal and ether do not allow of its being cheaply pr pared, the chrysanthemum or pyrethrum can be treated with an alkaline nitrate or even with liquor of ammonia, adding thereto as much as s required for moistening it completely. The exhaustion is afterwards completed by means of water in an extracting apparatus, releasing the ammonia, first, by exposing the liquid to the air, and, secondly, in a closed recep tacle, to the action of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, ΟΙ even by neutralising it directly by any suitable acid. The liquid thus obtained can be injected into the ground, it the insects in question live there, or blown into the air or sprayed on plants, flowers, stalks, or trunks, if it is a question of other insects. Bugs, moths, wood and paper boring worms, &c., can be destroyed (in addition to the use of the atomiser or the brush) by means of pieces of card soaked in this liquid and then dried. By evaporating the liquid and mixing the reade with an explosive or inflammable substance, as for instance, any nitrate, capsules or cartridges for burning can be formed therefrom. THE EDISON-LALANDE CELL. T described some time ago, but within the las HE Lalande-Chaperon cell has been fully year or so Mr. Edison has taken it in hand and devised several modifications, adapting it for various purposes; but what he terms the model for motors will answer for an illustration. The elements employed in the Edison-Lalande cell are zinc as the positive, and black oxide of copper (CuO) as the negative. The exciting liquid is simply a solution of caustic potash. The oxide of copper is obtained by the process of roasting copper insecticide has been which then into a fine IMPROVED INSECTICIDE. adge, which makes a coil of great latéral flexi-A patented in this country by Mr. W. P. turnings; whed into solid blocks, from which plates bility coupled with great compressible rigidity. Thompson, the patent agent, on behalf of Prof. of a suitable size for the different cells are cat. The flexible metal coil is shown of round section; P. Leonardi, Signors Zen and Sardi, of Venice, These plates are suspended from the cover of the the patentees do not, however, confine themselves which is described as follows:-In order to obtain containing vessel-a glass porcelain jar-by means to this section-for instance, for the application a protection from the insects called gnats, use has of a light framework of copper-one end of this to a vehicle wheel of very wide tread, they some- been hitherto made of chrysanthemum, burnt framework carrying the binding-post for the positive times form the coil on an oblong mandrel (with into the form of a powder or made into cones or pole of the battery. On each side of the copper the sharp corners preferably rounded off, and cloves, prepared with saltpetre, chlorate of potash, which is prevented from coming into contact with oxide element is suspended a rolled zinc plate, preferably made in sections to facilitate with- and adding thereto chamomile, wood sawdust, the negative element by means of vulcanite buttons. drawal from the coil) thus forming an oblong or even powdered charcoal. The combination of The zincs are amalgamated. As in most batteries, coil which they put round the wheel, or they this mixture gives off smoke, gases, and em- the zinc is attacked more vigorously near the top make the coil of round section, and then either pyreumatic products, among which there are, than at the lower part of the plate, therefore the by rolling or hammering flatten it into an oval although in small quantities, substances in-zines for this cell are made slightly tapering, er oblong shape. They sometimes form the jurious to health, especially to persons affected the thick part being uppermost. The exciting liquid employed in the battery consists, in the case of the 300 ampère-hour cell, of a solution of 2lb. of caustic potash in 61b. of water. When the circuit is closed, and the cell put in action, the water is decomposed, the oxygen with the zinc forming oxide of zinc; which, in turn, combines with the potash to form an exceedingly soluble double salt. of zinc and potash, which dissolves as rapidly as it is formed; the hydrogen liberated by the decomposition of the water reducing the copper oxide to metallic copper. This reduced copper is of great purity, and can, of course, be again converted into oxide. The most remarkable properties of this cell are its extremely low internal resistance and its great constancy, combined with the almost entire absence of local action. The loss of power by the latter is less than one-half of one per cent. This means that the energy produced by the cell is more than 99 per cent. of the theoretical amount of energy contained in the zinc consumed. The internal resistance of the 300 struction of the attachment is shown in Fig.12 and Fig. 3 shows the direction of the air currents has applied this apparatus to the scientific top, in the manner fully illustrated by Fig. 1. The con |