6. Past anterior. Used in connection with the past definite: Dès qu'il eut achevé ses études, il se mit à voyager,' As soon as he had completed his studies he began to travel.'

7. Future, simple and anterior. After a conjunction of time use the simple future or future anterior in referring to future time: Quand vous verrez votre père, présentez-lui mes respects, 'When you see your father give him my regards.'

36. Même: 'even, same': Il ne sait même pas écrire son nom, "He does not know even how to write his name'; les élèves mêmes, 'the very pupils'; même les élèves, or les élèves même, 'even the pupils'; les mêmes élèves, 'the same pupils.'

37. Negation. 1. Ne is the true negative word. It is generally followed by pas, point, guère, plus, etc. Ne precedes the verb and pas, point, etc. follow it, in a simple tense. In a compound tense pas, point, etc. follow the auxiliary: Je ne vois pas; Je n'ai pas vu.

2. Ne alone is used with aucun, nul, personne, rien: Aucune lettre n'est venue, 'No letter has come'; Nul homme ne peut échapper à la mort, 'No man can escape death.'

3. Ne is used only when there is a verb: pas de nouvelles, 'no

news.'

4. Ne... que, 'only': Je n'ai que trois francs, I have only three francs.'

5. The two parts of the negation must precede an infinitive (with avoir and être it is optional): Ne pas craindre, 'Not to fear.'

6. Pas and point may be omitted a. With oser, cesser, pouvoir, and savoir meaning 'to be able': Je ne puis faire cela, 'I cannot do that.'

b. After ne followed by autre and que: Je n'ai d'autre but que.. 'I have no other aim than . . . (my only aim is)'.

c. After que meaning 'why', or expressing a wish in a negative clause (que meaning 'why' is used only at the beginning of a negative clause): Que n'êtes-vous venu plus tôt? Why didn't you come earlier?' (For other uses of ne see 49.)

38. Ni: 'neither, nor.' 1. Neither, nor,' are expressed by ni, ni, and the verb is preceded by ne: Ni votre frère, ni le mien ne sont venus, Neither your brother nor mine has come.'

2. When verbs are connected by 'neither, nor,' ni connects the verbs in French, and each one is preceded by ne; Il ne voit ni n'entend, 'He neither sees nor hears.'

3. When the different parts of the subject are connected by ni the verb must be in the plural, unless the action or state refers only to one person or one thing: Ni César, ni Pompée ne devait être empereur, Neither Cæsar nor Pompey was to become an emperor.'

39. Ou, 'or'; où, 'where.' 1. When two nouns are connected by ou the adjective and the verb sometimes agree only with the last one of these nouns: Le général Kléber ou le général Hoche devait être à la tête de l'expédition, 'General Kléber or General Hoche was to be at the head of the expedition.'

2. Où often stands for dans lequel, or more generally for lequel preceded by a preposition: Voilà l'état où je me trouvais, 'that is the condition in which I was.'

3. Note that 'when' is expressed by où and not quand in sentences like At the time when this happened,' A l'époque où ceci se passait.

40. Participles. I. Present. The present participle expresses action. It is invariable and is not used in French in the conjugation of a verb as it is in English.

A word ending in ant expresses action a. When another tense of the same verb can be substituted for it.

b. When it has an object.

c. When it is or might be preceded by en. d. When it is preceded by ne.

EXAMPLE. Ses cheveux tombant sur ses épaules, ' Her hair falling on her shoulders.' We can substitute qui tombaient for tombant. Ils avançaient, l'un portant l'autre, 'They advanced, one carrying the other'; Il parlait en écrivant, 'He spoke while writing'; Les élèves, ne comprenant pas. 'The pupils, not understanding . . .' The verbal adjective in ant qualifies. It agrees in gender and number with the noun or pronoun to which it relates: Des enfants obéissants, obedient children.'

2. Past participle. a. The past participle used without an auxiliary agrees in gender and number with the noun or pronoun which it modifies: Les livres perdus, 'The lost books.'

b. The past participle used with être agrees with the subject of the verb: Les livres qui ont été perdus.

c. The past participle used with avoir agrees with the direct object when it precedes the verb: Les livres que vous avez perdus ; but, Il a perdu ses livres.

In reflexive verbs the auxiliary être stands for avoir.

d. Fait followed by an infinitive is invariable.

When a past participle has en for a direct object it is invariable. 41. Passive. The passive is formed in French by means of the auxiliary être : Beaucoup de soldats sont blessés, ont été blessés, 'Many soldiers are wounded, have been wounded.'

42. Pendant, 'during ;' pendant que: 'while.' Pendant is a preposition; pendant que is a conjunction: pendant mon absence, 'during my absence'; pendant que j'écrivais, 'while I was writing.'

43. Personal pronouns. 1. Je, tu, il, ils, are never used except as subject of a verb that is expressed: Il lit, He reads.'

2. Stressed or disjunctive pronouns: moi, 'I,' 'me'; toi, 'thou,' 'thee'; lui, 'he,' 'him'; elle, 'she,' 'her'; nous, 'we,' 'us'; vous, 'you'; eux, 'they,' 'them'; elles, 'they,' 'them'; soi, 'one's self,' 'itself' (with an indefinite subject). They are used

a. For emphasis: Moi, je reste ici, 'I stay here.'

b. When the verb, of which the pronoun is the subject, is omitted: Je travaille, mais lui, non, I work, but he does not.' c. With prepositions: Allez à elle, 'Go to her.'

3. a. Conjunctive or unstressed pronouns: me, 'me'; te, 'thee,' 'you'; le, 'him,' 'it'; la, 'her,' 'it'; lui, to him,' to her'; se, 'himself,' ' herself,' 'themselves,' 'one's self,' 'itself'; nous, 'us'; vous, 'you'; les, 'them'; leur, 'them.'

b. The personal pronoun as object direct or indirect precedes the verb, except in the imperative affirmative: Il lui a donné sa plume, 'He gave him his pen'; Prêtez-lui votre plume; Ne lui prêtez pas votre plume.

c. Le, la, les, are always used as direct object; the others may be used as subject, direct object, or indirect object.

4. a. Leur is sometimes a personal pronoun; it is then the indirect object: Donnez-leur du papier, 'Give them some paper.'

b. Leur is also a possessive adjective: leur frère leur a remis leurs livres et leurs cahiers.

5. En stands for de plus a noun or a pronoun. Speaking of letters: J'en ai reçu, i.e. J'ai reçu des lettres.

6. a. Y stands for à plus a noun or a pronoun. Il y a répondu, i.e. Il a répondu à cela.

b. Y is sometimes an adverb standing for à, en, dans, . . ., plus the name of some place mentioned before. Speaking of Paris: J'y étais l'an dernier, i.e. J'étais à Paris l'an dernier.

c. Note the difference between y and là. Là points out: Votre livre est là. Y refers to some noun used before.

7. When both a dative and an accusative pronoun precede the verb, the dative comes first, except in the case of le, la, les, used with lui, leur, en, y: Il me l'a donné; but, Il le lui a donné. After the verb these pronouns are placed as in English: Donnez-le lui; Donnez-les nous.

8. After aussi, du moins, en vain, peut-être, etc., the personal pronoun subject may follow the verb.

44. Possessive adjectives. Mon, ma, mes, 'my'; ton, ta, tes, 'thy,' 'your'; son, sa, ses, 'his,' 'her'; notre, nos, 'our'; votre, vos, 'your'; leur, leurs, 'their.'

1. Mon, ton, son, are used instead of ma, ta, sa, before a feminine word beginning with a vowel or a mute h: mon amie; son aimable sœur.

2. The definite article is used in French instead of the possessive adjective when there is no doubt as to the possessor, especially before the names of the parts of the body: Il portait un livre à la main, * He was carrying a book in his hand'; Il lui prit la main, 'He took his hand.' (In the second sentence the dative lui shows who the possessor is.)

45. Pouvoir, to be able, can, may, could,' etc. presses the idea of possibility. It has all its tenses.

This verb ex

Se pouvoir is used only in the third person singular: Il se peut qu'il se trompe, It may be that he is wrong.'

Pouvoir is sometimes used as follows in the present subjunctive: Puisse-t-il revenir! May he come back!'

46. Prepositions. All prepositions except après and en govern the present infinitive. (See above.)

47. Que. This word may be an adverb, a conjunction, a relative or an interrogative pronoun,

I. Que as an adverb means combien or pourquoi, and is used at the beginning of exclamatory or negative sentences: Que de malheureux il y a! Que ne me le disiez-vous?

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2. Que as a conjunction corresponds to that,' and is never omitted: Il m'a dit que vous viendriez, 'He told me that you would come.'

48. Relative and interrogative pronouns. Qui, que, quoi, dont, lequel.

I. Qui as a relative pronoun may be used as subject and refer to persons or things: l'élève qui vient de lire, the student who just read'; la boîte qui contient les bijoux, the box that contains the jewels.'

2. Qui as a relative pronoun may be the indirect object. It then refers only to persons: l'homme à qui vous avez prêté de l'argent, 'the man to whom you lent money.'

3. Qui as an interrogative pronoun may be used as subject or as direct or indirect object: Qui est là? Qui avez-vous vu? A qui pensez-vous? It refers only to persons.

4. Que, whether a relative or an interrogative pronoun, is always used as the direct object; it refers either to persons or things: le jeune homme que vous avez rencontré, 'the young man whom you have met'; Que voyez-vous? What do you see?'

5. 'What,' when subject, is translated by ce qui; when object, by ce que ce qui m'étonne . . ., 'what astonishes me

je ne comprends pas . . ., 'what I do not understand . . .'

'; ce que

6. The relative and interrogative pronouns agree with their antecedent in gender, number, and person: C'est moi qui ai écrit cette lettre, 'It is I who wrote this letter'; C'est moi qui suis sortie la première, 'It was I who went out first' (the speaker being a girl).

7. Lequel, lesquels, laquelle, lesquelles, duquel, etc., are used instead of qui after a preposition when referring to things or animals: la table sur laquelle vous écrivez, 'the table on which you are writing.'

8. Lequel, laquelle, when interrogative pronouns, must be used before the preposition de either expressed or left to be understood: Lesquelles de ces plumes préférez-vous? Which of these pens do you prefer?' Voici des plumes; lesquelles préférez-vous?