3. It is used as the conclusion of a conditional sentence : Si j'en avais le temps j'irais au théâtre, 'If I had the time I would go to the theater.'

4. It is sometimes used in both clauses of a conditional sentence: Il serait mon frère, qu'il n'agirait pas autrement, 'If he were my brother he would not act differently.'

(Note the use of que here.)

5. Quand même is always followed by the conditional: Quand même je ne te verrais plus, 'Even though I should not see you any more.'

The pluperfect subjunctive is sometimes used instead of the conditional past.

18. Construction. The order of a French sentence is usually as follows: Subject, verb, predicate; or, subject, verb, direct object, indirect object: Le ciel est bleu. J'ai donné un livre à mon frère. The indirect object may precede the direct object if it is shorter; the subject follows the verb in a parenthetical clause: J'ai donné à mon frère les œuvres complètes de Lamartine. Voici, lui dit-il... (For other important exceptions see personal pronouns.)

19. De: of, from.' 1. Between two nouns de expresses the relation of material or origin: une table de bois, 'a wooden table.'

2. De is used after a general negation instead of du, de la, de l', des, before the noun: Je n'ai pas de vin; but, Je n'ai pas du vin de cette année.

3. De is used before the noun which determines adverbs and some nouns of quantity: assez d'argent, 'money enough;' une main de papier, 'a quire of paper.' (See 9.)

20. Demonstrative Adjectives. Ce, cet, cette, ces, ce...-ci, ces . . .-là, 'this, that, these, those.'

Note ce livre, cet ami, cet homme.

21. Demonstrative Pronouns. Ce, ceci, cela, 'this, that'; celui, celle, ceux, celles, 'the one, these or those'; celui-ci, celui-là, ..., 'this one, that one.'

1. Ce is used as subject of the verb être before a determinate noun: c'est mon frère; c'est ma plume; c'est ma sœur ; ce sont mes livres. C'est corresponds to 'he is, she is, it is'; ce sont, to 'they are.'

2. C'est is also used before a pronoun in the singular, or in the first or second person plural. Ce sont must be used before a

pronoun in the third person plural: c'est moi; c'est nous; ce sont elles.

3. When est is placed between two infinitives it is generally preceded by ce: Espérer c'est jouir, To hope is to enjoy.'

22. Dessous, dessus, are adverbs, and therefore cannot be followed by a noun, whereas sous, sur, are prepositions: Le livre était sur la table; dessus la table would be wrong. Dessous, dessus, may be used as prepositions when they are accompanied by à, de, par: par-dessus tout, 'above all'; au-dessous de cette inscription, 'under that inscription.' The same remark applies to dedans, dehors, dans, hors de, meaning respectively 'inside, outside, in, out of.'

23. Devoir. This verb expresses the idea of debt, duty, probable futurity: Je lui dois cinq francs, ' I owe him five francs'; Les enfants doivent respecter leurs parents, 'Children ought to respect their parents'; Nous devions partir le lendemain, We were to start the next day.'

1. Devoir meaning 'to owe' is followed by a noun object.

2. Devoir expressing duty, obligation, probability, is followed by an infinitive, and is translated by 'ought, should, to have to, to be to.' (Note that devoir has all its tenses, whereas 'ought' and 'should' are defective. In some cases the present infinitive following devoir is to be translated by the English past infinitive: Vous devriez me dire, 'You ought to tell me'; Vous auriez dû me dire, 'You ought to have told me.'

3. Note the following use of devoir. Après une si longue absence vous devez être heureux de revoir votre patrie, 'After such a long absence you must be glad to see your country again.'

24. Durant, pendant: 'during.' These prepositions are often omitted: Je n'ai rien fait pendant toute la semaine dernière, or Je n'ai rien fait toute la semaine dernière, 'I did not do anything last week.' Note that pendant is a preposition, and pendant que is a conjunction.

Pour in expressions of time is used only in reference to the future: Je suis ici pour longtemps, ' I shall be here for a long time to come.'

25. En, preposition, governs the present participle: en voyant. En is used before names of countries when they are feminine singular.

26. Faire, plus an infinitive, expresses the idea that the action is to be done by some one or something else: Coupez-moi les cheveux, 'Cut my hair'; Faites-vous couper les cheveux, ' Have your hair cut.' 'Have,' 'get,' 'cause,' are the English equivalents of faire. Les hommes qu'il a fait arrêter, 'The men whom he has caused to be arrested.' Fait, followed by an infinitive, is invariable.

27. Falloir. I. This verb governs the subjunctive: Il faut qu'il vienne, 'He must come.'

2. It may be followed by the infinitive when there is no doubt as to the person or thing meant. Il nous fallait partir, 'We had

to start.'

3. When it has a noun as object it means 'to need': Il me faut ce livre, I need that book.'

28. Feminine, 1. The feminine of many nouns is formed: by adding e to the masculine singular: un Français, une Française; by changing final e into esse: un tigre, une tigresse; by changing en final into enne: un Brésilien, une Brésilienne; by changing final teur into trice or teuse: un admirateur, une admiratrice; un porteur, une porteuse.

2. Adjectives. GENERAL RULE: The feminine of adjectives is formed by adding e to the masculine singular: un homme grand, une femme grande.

3. EXCEPTIONS. a. Adjectives ending in e in the masculine do not change in the feminine: un pays riche, une contrée riche. b. Adjectives ending in ƒ in the masculine change ƒ to ve; vif,

vive.

c. Adjectives ending in x change x into se: heureux, heureuse. d. Adjectives ending in er change er into ère: premier, première. e. Adjectives having a verbal stem and ending in teur change teur into teuse: flatteur, flatteuse.

f. Adjectives ending in el, eil, en, on, double the final consonant before adding the feminine e bon, bonne.

g. Some adjectives ending in et change et into ette; some change et into ète: muet, muette; secret, secrète.

h. Adjectives ending in gu take a diæresis over u in the feminine: aigu, aigüe.

4. Beau, beautiful,' nouveau, 'new,' fou, 'mad,' mou, 'soft,' vieux, `old,' have another form for the masculine. They become

bel, nouvel, fol, mol, vieil, before a masculine noun beginning with a vowel or a mute h. Their feminine is belle, nouvelle, folle, molle, vieille.

5. Among others note also the following irregular adjectives: bref, brève, brief'; doux, douce, 'sweet,' 'soft'; faux, fausse, 'false'; roux, rousse, 'reddish'; sec, sèche, 'dry'; blanc, blanche, 'white'; franc, franche, 'frank'; public, publique, 'public'; grec, grecque, 'Greek'; long, longue, 'long'; bas, basse, 'low'; gras, grasse, 'fat'; las, lasse, 'weary'; gros, grosse, 'big'; bénin, bénigne, 'benign'; malin, maligne, 'cunning, sharp'; frais, fraîche, 'fresh, cool'; sot, sotte, 'foolish'; favori, favorite, 'favorite.'

29. Fleurir: 'to flourish, to blossom.' This verb has two forms in the imperfect indicative and present participle: fleurissait, fleurissant; florissait, florissant. The second form is only used in the figurative sense: Cet arbre fleurissait tous les ans deux fois, 'This tree blossomed twice every year'; Cet auteur florissait sous le règne de Louis XIV, 'This author flourished under the reign of Louis the Fourteenth.'

30. Français. Words like français, allemand, anglais, etc., begin with a capital only when they are nouns referring to the inhabitants of the country: un Anglais, an Englishman;' un marchand anglais, 'an English merchant;' l'anglais, la langue anglaise, 'the English language.'

31. Gens: 'people.' 1. In general, adjectives modifying gens are masculine, whether they precede or follow it: Tous les gens vertueux sont heureux, 'All virtuous people are happy.'

2. When an adjective immediately precedes gens, that adjective and those that are placed before it in the same clause are feminine, while those following gens are masculine: Les vieilles gens sont soupçonneux, 'Old people are suspicious.'

3. When gens is followed by de all the adjectives that modify it are masculine : certains gens d'affaires, 'certain business men.' 4. Devenus vieux et infirmes, ces bonnes gens. . ., 'Having become old and invalid, these good people. . .' Here devenus, vieux, infirmes, are masculine because they belong to another clause than ces bonnes gens.

32. Homonyms, i.e. words pronounced alike: sang, sans, cent, sent, blood,' 'without,' 'hundred,' 'feels.'

33. Il est is sometimes used instead of il y a; it is impersonal: il est un pays 'there is a country . . .'

34. Il semble. 1. When this verb is used negatively or interrogatively it governs the subjunctive: Il ne me semble pas qu'il ait raison, ' It does not seem to me that he is right.'

2. If it is neither negative nor interrogative it may or may not govern the subjunctive.

a. It generally governs the subjunctive when it has no object answering the question "To whom does it seem?" Il semble que vous n'ayez jamais rien vu de semblable, 'It seems that you never saw anything like that.'

b. It generally governs the indicative when it has such an object: Il me semble que vous vous trompez, 'It seems to me that you are mistaken.'

35. Indicative. The indicative is used in subordinate clauses after verbs expressing an idea of certainty and probability.

1. Present Tense. a. This tense states what is generally true: La vie est courte, 'Life is short'; or what is going on at the moment of speaking: Je finis mon travail, I finish my work.'

Note that I study,' 'I do study,' 'I am studying,' are all expressed by the same form, j'étudie.

b. The present indicative is sometimes used for a past tense or the immediate future.

2. Imperfect. It expresses an unfinished action in past time, or a customary or repeated action in past time: Je lisais quand vous êtes arrivé, 'I was reading when you arrived'; Autrefois je me promenais tous les matins, Formerly I used to take a walk every morning.'

3. Past definite. This tense is used in the narrative style, to relate what happened at a definite time: Napoléon Ier vainquit les Prussiens à Iéna, 'Napoleon I defeated the Prussians at Jena.'

4. Past indefinite. This tense is used to relate what happened in past time, whether definite or not: J'ai étudié ma leçon de français, I have studied my French lesson'; Hier, j'ai perdu cinq francs, 'Yesterday I lost five francs.'

5. Pluperfect. Generally used in connection with the past indefinite: J'avais fini ma lettre quand vous êtes venu, 'I had finished my letter when you came.'