PUNCTUATION, TYPOGRAPHICAL MARKS, ETC. 49 140. Besides these points, there are others, partly grammatical and partly rhetorical, which may be thus enumerated: the Note of Interrogation (?), which shows that a question is denoted by the word to which it is annexed; the Note of Exclamation (!), expressing admiration, horror, or any considerable emotion; the marks of Parenthesis ( ), used when a clause, word or sign, which interrupts the progress of the sentence is inserted; the Dash (-), used where a sentence breaks off abruptly, or where suppressed emotion is to be expressed; or as a substitute for the marks of Parenthesis, and sometimes as a modification of the other stops, or independently when no other stop may be appropriate. 141. There are other points, related rather to letters, words and syllables, than to the grammatical elucidation of sentences. The Apos'trophe ('), a mark distinguished only from the Comma in being placed above the line, is used to denote the abbreviation of a word; as, o'er for over; 'longs for belongs; 'gainst for against; also to mark the possessive case of nouns; as, John's hat. In the written language, the distinction between the nominative (or objective) case plural and the possessive case plural is expressed by the addition of an apostrophe after the letter s; as, the trees' leaves, Where a proper name ends in s, the s of the possessive case ought to be retained after the apostrophe; as, Mr. Ames's house, Collins's odes. Sometimes, for the sake of euphony, and in poetry to suit the measure of a verse, the s after the apostrophe is omitted in the pronunciation, and it ought then to be also dropped in the written or printed word; as, in Moses' days, for Jesus' sake. But where the s after the apostrophe is retained in the pronunciation, it ought to be exhibited to the eye. 142. The Hyphen (-) is employed to connect compounded words; as in alms-house, to-morrow. It is also used at the end of a line when a word is divided, and a portion of the word has to be carried on to the beginning of the next line. A mark identical with the Hyphen, and called a Makron, is sometimes used over a vowel to denote that the quantity is long; as in remõte, serēne. The mark called the Breve (°) is placed over a vowel to indicate that it has a short sound; as in Helena. 143. Marks of quotation (" ") are used to denote that the words of another person, real or supposed, are quoted. When one quotation is introduced within another, the included one should be preceded by a single inverted comma, and closed by a single apostrophe, thus (' '). 144. Brackets [ ] enclose a word or sentence distinct from the text, or not originally inserted in it; as,“ He [Milton] had read much, and knew what books could teach." Marks of Parenthesis enclose what the: author himself interposes between parts of a sentence. Brackets generally enclose some explanation, omission, or comment supplied by another. 145. The Diæresis ("), from a Greek word signifying a division or separation, consists of two points, which are placed over a vowel to denote that it is to be separated in the pronunciation from the preceding vowel or syllable, in order that the vowel so marked may form, or help to form, a distinct syllable; as in aërial, or'thoëpy, zoʊphyte, blessed. 146. Two Commas (") are occasionally used (as in the Table under Paragraph 20) to indicate that something is understood which was expressed in the line and word immediately above. 147. Marks of Ellipsis (a Greek word signifying an omission) are formed by means of a long dash, or of a succession of points or stars ***), of various lengths, and which are used to indicate the omission of letters in a word, of words in a sentence, or of sentences in a paragraph. 148. The word Paragraph is from the Greek, and originally signified a writing near or subjoined. Thus it came to mean a subdivision in written or printed composition. It was formerly indicated by the following mark (¶); but is now generally represented simply by beginning a sentence with a new line having a slight blank space at its commencement. "See ¶ 20" simply means See paragraph twenty. The sign ¶ is sometimes used merely as a mark of reference, like an asterisk. 149. The Section (§) denotes the division of a discourse or chapter into inferior portions. The Index, or Hand (), points out a passage to which it is desired to direct especial attention. Three stars, placed in this form (***), or N. B., the initials of no'ta bene, “mark well,” are sometimes used for the same purpose as the index. The Asterisk ( * ), the Obelisk or Dagger (†), the Double Dagger (‡), and Parallels (||), together with letters or figures of a small size, technically called Superiors, are marks of reference to the margin, or some other part of a book. 150. The Brace (~~) is used to connect a number of words with one common term. The Caret (A) (from a Latin word, meaning, it is wanting) is used exclusively in manuscript, to indicate something interlined. The Cedilla is a mark used under the French c, thus (c), to signify that it is to be pronounced soft, like s. 151. There are three accentual marks. The mark of the acute accent is ('), and may be remembered by its pointing down towards you, as if to pierce. The mark of the grave accent is ('). The mark of the circumflex, which is a compound of the other two, is (^). 152. The acute accent is used in English sometimes as a mark of accent, and sometimes of quantity, and sometimes in place of the Diæresis. The grave accent and the circumflex are little used in English; and they are employed in French to denote a difference in the pronunciation, not in the accent. 153. In regard to the use of capital letters, authors exhibit much the same caprice that they do in punctuation. Formerly initial capital letters were much more used than now in distinguishing nouns. In German, nouns are still generally distinguished in this way. Words ON READING POETRY. 51 worth and many other English writers commence their emphatic nouns with capital letters. It is the present approved custom to distinguish by initial capitals the first word of every sentence, of every line of poetry, and of every quotation and every example formally introduced; also of every noun and principal word in the title of a book; as, "Locke on the Human Understanding." 154. Initial capitals are also used to distinguish proper names and adjectives derived from them; titles of honor and distinction; common nouns personified; the pronoun I and the interjection O; words used as the names of Deity, or to express his attributes; the personal pronouns he, his, and him, when referring to Deity in sentences where reference is at the same time made to any of his creatures in the same number and person; as, "he loved his God, admired His wondrous works." Nouns and adjectives to which it is desired to give any particular prominence that may impress them especially on the reader's attention are frequently capitalized now by the best writers. QUESTIONS. 136. What of Punctuation? 137. The prevailing modes? 138. What of Grammatical Punctuation? 139. What are the grammatical points? 140. Enumerate other points or marks. 141. What of the Apostrophe? 142. The Hyphen? What mark denotes that a vowel is long? Short? 143. What of marks of quotation? 144. Brackets? 145. The Diæresis? 146. Two commas? 147. Marks of Ellipsis? 148. A Paragraph? 149. The Section? The Index? What marks correspond to the Index? What are marks of reference? 150. The Brace? The Caret? 151, 152. The accentual marks and their use? 153, 154. What of the use of Capital Letters? LESSON XIV. ON READING POETRY. 155. VERSE is generally an adjunct of poetry, although there may be poetry without it. Poetry of the highest order may be found in the Book of Job and the Psalms of David. But, even when poetry has the form of prose, its diction at times falls into the metrical sweep and cadence, as if by a law which makes the inward harmony suggest the external. The objection has been made that the habit of reciting poetry is apt to lead to a monotonous manner. As well might it be said that a habit of dancing leads to a faulty gait in walking. By attending to the measure of verse alone, and disregarding the sense, a sing-song mode of utterance may be contracted; but the judicious recitation of verse is admirably adapted to impart ease, flexibility, and grace to delivery. 156. Poetry is sometimes rendered in a slight degree more difficult than prose by the inversions or irregular arrangements of words required by the measure. Were we, for instance, to express in prose the following couplet: Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring Of woes unnumbered, heavenly Goddess, sing! it would run thus: "Sing, O heavenly Goddess! the wrath of Achilles, the direful spring of unnumbered woes to Greece." And this example is by no means one of the most remarkable instances of inversion that could be adduced. 157. Rules for inflecting the voice in the reading of verse, as well as of prose, are fallacious and prejudicial. No good reader was ever formed by them; and no two good readers will be likely to mark the passages for inflection in a given poem precisely alike. Bad habits of reading are often formed by an unwarranted reliance on the accuracy of these rules. 158. There are, however, some few principles to which the student's attention should be directed; not because they will certainly make him read well, but because, if he neglects them, he will undoubtedly read badly. The first and most important is, "Be sure you understand what you read." If you do not yourself conceive the sentiments of the author, it is utterly impossible that you should give them expression. But, if you perfectly understand your author, you will know where to make the proper pauses, and lay the proper emphasis that the subject requires. 159. Take, for instance, the following couplet: Hope springs eternal in the human breast; The last line, carelessly read, would be nearly nonsense; or, if it had any meaning, it would be, that "man exists always for the enjoyment of happiness." But the intention of the poet is, that "man does not enjoy any present happiness, but always looks forward to future bliss." To express this meaning, the emphasis must be thrown on the words is and to be, and the line be read as if printed Man never is, but always to be blest. 160. The next point to which the young reader's attention should be directed is the metrical structure of the verse. With this he should so far familiarize his ear that he can readily mark by a slight stress the accent'ed syllables. Be careful in doing this not to fall into that singsong habit which is so offensive. A good way to avoid it is to adhere to your habitual speaking voice; you may thus, by a little practice, read poetry metrically, without converting it into a bad tune. 161. A single line of poetry is properly called a verse; two lines are called a couplet; four verses, of which the rhymes may or may not be ON READING POETRY. 53 alternate, are called a quatrain or stanza. The term stanza, which is of Italian origin, and literally signifies a station or resting-place, is also used to designate any regularly recurring number of verses into which a poem may be divided. 162. Almost every verse admits of a pause in or near the middle, which pause is called the Cæsūra (from the Latin word Cædo, I cut). The following mark (") may be adopted to denote this pause. On its right disposition depends, in a great degree, the harmony of the verse. The Casural pause may, but must not of necessity, coincide with a pause in the sense. It may take place after the fourth syllable; as in Pealed their first notes" to sound the march of Time. Or it may come after the fifth syllable; as in If Greece must perish", we thy will obey. Or after the sixth syllable; as in To Him who gives us all" I yield a part. Or two Cesuras may divide the verse into three portions; as in His food the fruits", his drink" the crystal well. 163. The introduction of semi-Cæsural pauses frequently increases the melodious flow of the verse; as Warms' in the sun", refreshes' in the breeze, Lives' through all life", extends' through all extent, Spreads' undivided", operates' unspent. 164. The Casural pauses, and the pauses at the end of each line, must be made by suspending, not dropping, the breath; and they must be so short as not to cause any interruption in the sense. 165. In regard to the Parenthesis, the 6th rule under ¶ 134 gives directions applicable to poetry as well as to prose, respecting the tone in which a parenthesis and a sim'i-le should be read. 166. The Ellipsis (from a Greek word signifying to leave or pass by) is, in Grammar, an omission of one or more words, which the reader is supposed to recognize as understood; as, "There are who love the hunt," for "There are those," &c.; "The horse I rode," for "The horse which I rode.” The Ellipsis is more used in poetry than in prose. An "elliptical phrase" is one in which the ellipsis is used. 167. In conclusion, we would say with Dr. Blair, merely extending his meaning from oratory or public speaking to school and family reading, that nothing is more necessary for those who would excel than "to cultivate habits of the several virtues, and to refine and improve all their |