B. On the other hand, the forms cet, ces, derived from ecce iste, which had likewise been employed adjectively or substantively (see above), were greatly confined to their modern adjective use. Their double employment is still seen in the 16th century; then it ceases. Que ceste soit la premiere reigle. (CALVIN.) (DU BELLAY.) § 306. Ce its adjectival and substantival uses. In Modern French, ce is— 1. SUBSTANTIVAL. C'est beau; c'était le beautemps, ce qui est vrai doit être dit. Qu'est-ce que c'est ? ceci est fini, mais cela reste à faire, etc. 2. ADJECTIVAL. Ce roi, ce bel homme, ce héros. Ce is derived from ecce and hoc (ço, iço, ice, in Old French). 1. In Old French ce was always substantival; it was not declined. It was virtually neuter. When substantival, it may be said to be so still. Que pourra-ce estre. (Ch. de Rol., 11th cent.) Ce dist li rois. (Ronciv., 12th cent.) Bien il croit que ce soit elle. (Berte, 13th cent.) Ce fu par un lundi que Berte fut trovee. (Id.) 2. At the end of the 14th or beginning of the 15th century, ce began to combine with the various adjectival forms cet, ces, etc., given above, but it retained its former indefinite substantival character side by side with this adjectival use. Compare from FROISSART (15th cent.): Les archers anglois avoient laisse en leur logis ce de harnois qu'ils avoient and Ce terme pendant vint Messire d'Artois en Angleterre. Also from COMMINES (16th cent.) : La cour, c'est a entendre le prince and Mais Dieu ne lui voulait consentir ceste grace que de recevoir ce sage conseil. 3. In the 17th century the use of the adjectival ce is fully Qui tous de mon amant empruntaient leur éclat, Et ces lauriers encor témoins de sa victoire. (RACINE.) Vous avez fait de grandes choses; mais avouez la vérité, ce n'est guère vous par qui elle ont été faites. (FÉNELON.) § 307. Ci and là. in ceci, celui-ci, etc. It is not easy, in Old French, to trace the correct force of hoc, iste and ille in Latin, but thus much seems certain :-ce, cist, cettui, etc., indicated the nearer object (this); cil, celui, etc., the more distant one. This distinction disappeared by degrees in the 15th and 16th centuries, and the adverbs ci and là were then gradually introduced in all the forms when necessary to prevent ambiguity. MONTAIGNE writes with ci: Vraiement ceulx-ci ont je ne scay quoy de plus vif. RABELAIS writes without là: Les hommes de celui temps. The following sentence illustrates well the origin of their use : On fait cecy, on fait cela, on va par cy, on va par la. (COQUILLART, 15th cent.) § 308. Declension of qui in Old French. Till the 12th century it is possible to trace distinctions of gender in qui, but such distinctions seem to have been but feebly maintained; the declensions commonly followed ran thus: Both Genders and Numbers. SUBJ.: OBJ. : qui (Lat. qui) cui indirect object of verb and also objective of preposition (Lat. cui). que direct object of verb (Lat. quem, quam, quod). Subjective. Qui mult est las, il se dort contre terre. (Ch. de Rol., 11th cent.) La dame fu au bois qui durement plora. (Berte, 13th cent.) Dites qui vaut mieux loïal folie ou sage traïson. (Coucy, 12th cent.) Objective. Mesmement les povres gens cui (à qui) elle donnait vestimens furent plain de doleur et d'ire. (Roman de la Manekine.) Devers le roi de Hongrie cui (= de qui) sereur il avait a feme. § 309. Qui subjective, and qui objective. Hence Cui is the regular objective form till the 13th century. In the 14th, cui is no longer found, qui is always written. in Modern French we find in respect to persons: * 1. In RELATIVE sentences, qui as a subjective and as an objective, except as a direct objective of the verb, where que (quem, quam) is preferred. SUBJ. L'homme qui est là. OBJ. L'homme que vous voyez là. L'homme avec qui vous avez voyagé. L'homme de qui vous parlez. L'homme à qui vous parlez. 2. In INTERROGATIVE sentences, qui as a subjective and as an objective under all circumstances. SUBJ. Qui est là? l'homme. OBJ.: Qui voyez-vous là? l'homme. Avec qui avez-vous voyagé? avec l'homme. A qui parlez-vous? à l'homme. § 310. Que, whom; and que, what. 1. Que may be derived from quem, quam; both in Old and Modern French it is often their exact equivalent. 2. On the other hand, its more constant employment as (so to speak) a Neuter pronoun what, with an indeterminate relation, points to a derivation from quod.† = Ce dist Rolans compainz que faites vous. (Chanson de Poland.) Que feit-il? que il feit mes bonnes gens, ecoutez. (RABELAIS.) 3. In this use it is closely allied to que the conjunction; also from quod. In Old French, moreover, occur examples in which the d is found both in the pronoun and in the conjunction. * For animals and inanimate objects there is a strong tendency to use lequel. See lequel and qui compared, § 314. A more indefinite employment would necessitate a return to que or quoi, (see que, quoi), but then 'what' would be the equivalent in English. + Quid and quæ are also found in the 'Oaths,' ninth century. (See § 27.) § 311. Quoi, what. Quoi (in Old French coi), like que, seems to have a twofold origin (1) cui, (2) quid. 1. Quoi has always been employed as a more or less indefinite equivalent of the objective qui (cui) or lequel. This use it retains in respect to things, instead of lequel. Ce blasphème, Seigneur, de quoi vous m'accusez. (CORNEILLE, 17th cent.) Ce n'est pas le bonheur après quoi je soupire. (MOLIÈRE, 17th cent.) Nous perdons l'unité de notre existence en quoi consiste notre tranquillité. (BUFFON, 18th cent.) La mort seule, à quoi les athées veulent tout réduire, a besoin qu'on écrive en faveur de ses droits. (CHATEAUBRIAND, 19th cent.) Similarly in English, "what" is a neuter form. In their use what and quoi, with its proclitic equivalent que, have a strong affinity. See "what" in Morris's English Accidence, p. 137, and Abbott's Shakesperian Grammar, pp. 172—177. 2. The same use of quoi in reference to persons is found as late as Corneille : Blanche pour quoy la journee se faisait. (PERCEFOREST, 15th cent.) Ce Labinus de quoy je parle. (MONTAIGNE, 16th cent.) On vous obéira quoi qu'il vous plaise élire. (CORNEILLE, 17th cent.) § 312. Que (what) and Quoi (what) compared. Que (quod) and quoi (quid) are now practically the same words, but with this difference, that que is always proclitic, whereas quoi has the tonic accent. Hence their various uses correspond to those of me, moi, etc. Compare C'est en quoi vous vous trompez, and C'est en moi que vous avez confiance Que dites-vous ? and Me dites-vous la vérité ? Quoi? que dis-tu ? and § 313. Quel. 1. Quel from qualis (of what sort of such a sort) has kept its distinctive meaning in Voilà quelle je suis et quelle je veux être. CORNEILLE, 17th cent.) Ils ont supposé dans les conquérants un droit, je ne sais quel de tuer. (MONTESQUIEU, 17th cent.) Voilà quel est Paris présentement. (SÉVIGNÉ, 17th cent.) Quel homme est-ce ? c'est un beau, court, jeune vieillard, rasé, rusé. (BEAUMARCHAIS, 18th cent.) 2. But owing to the loss of various Old French words of Latin origin and for which quel has to do duty, its exact force can generally only be gathered from the context. (a) Quel combien de. La reine parla au peuple avec tant de grâce, de force et de courage qu'il est incroyable avec quel succès. (ST. SIMON, 18th cont.) Quel bruit! quels feux de joie ! quelle effusion de vin ! etc. (SÉVIGNÉ, 17th cent.) (8) Quelquant=how many, in what rank or order. En quel siècle vivons-nous ? Quelle heure est-il ? Quel jour de la semaine est-ce aujourd'hui ? § 314. Lequel, etc., and qui, que, compared. 1. Lequel seems to have been originally the exact equivalent of qui, que, in relation to persons, animals, or inanimate objects. Mais il ne sait li quels vainc ne qui non. (Ronc., 12th cent.) Perisset le jors en cui je fvi neiz. (Moral. sur Job.) Les fruictz de la terre estoient longs et forts qui les empeschoyent a aller. (COMMINES, 15th cent.) C'est un extresme malheur d'estre subject a un maistre duquel on ne peut estre jamais assure s'il soit bon. (LA BOETIE, 16th cent.) During the 17th century+ lequel is rarely employed; qui, que, avec qui, de qui, sous qui, pour qui, etc., are the common forms for inanimate objects. Je veux une coiffure, en dépit de la mode (MOLIÈRE). (Id.) * Thus of quantus, how great, how many-quantième alone remains. Quel has ejected quant, quante. The difference is clearly seen in the following example of Rabelais :-"Quantes et quelles conditions seroient requises a le faire saige?" Génin says that Molière has employed lequel only eight times. |