The etymology in most of these words has overruled the French ending: dromadaire, dromadarius; buffle, bubulus ; cygne, cygnus; crocodile, crocodilus; crabe, carabus; fourmi, formica. Merle, merula, was rightly feminine in Old French, according to etymology and French ending. Souris is masculine in some patois, as in Latin soricem. Perdicem, perdrix, is both masculine and feminine in Latin. Renne is of Germanic origin. To this list may be added ange, angelus, monk-fish, which, however, is sometimes given feminine in dictionaries. B. Sex must be expressed, if necessary, by 'male' or 'female;' as, un cygne femelle; une perdrix mâle. Comp., English, a he-goat, a she-goat; a buck-rabbit, a doe-rabbit; a ewe-lamb; a cock-sparrow, a hen-sparrow, etc. So in Latin femina piscis, vulpes mascula. 7. Some of the nouns in § 155 possess a generic or class name in addition to the forms given: examples, un chat, un cochon, un mouton, un cheval, un poulet, etc.; but most as a class name use the distinctive male form; ex., un canard: a smaller number the female; ex., une oie, une dinde. The English class-noun sometimes corresponds with the French, sometimes not; thus, oie and goose correspond; not canard and duck. § 232. Rule of the e mute. (§ 156.) 1. The Latin neuter seems to have disappeared in Gallo-Latin in the fourth or fifth century. 2. In Latin the gender of a word is, as a rule, known by its ending.* 3. In French words of popular and ancient formation, the Latin ending was either omitted, or was so weakened as to lose its gender power (§ 40, Apocope). 4. The French word was thus practically deprived of its gender. 5. Consciously or not, a new scheme was framed (1) French words with 'e mute' final were made feminine. (2) French words without 'e mute' final were made masculine. 6. So powerful, however, was the Latin, that (1) a great number of words in 'e mute' remained masculine because the Latin noun is masculine or neuter; and (2) some nouns without the " e mute' remained feminine because the Latin is feminine. 7. In words of learned formation,† the ending remains in but a slightly modified form; necessarily, the influence of the Latin gender makes itself felt to a still greater extent. * Although Latin only is here spoken of, all the above applies broadly to words of other origin. + A 'learned' word in French is one which has been consciously and artificially coined from Latin, Greek, etc. It is evident that the coiner of such a word would hold the original gender in respect (§ 37. 6). 8. It is useless for the present purpose (a) To give the origin of those nouns (1) which are feminine in Latin, (2) which end in e mute, (3) which are feminine in French. The French ending is not at variance with the feminine origin of the word: no struggle is possible between the Latin and French. (b) To give the origin of those nouns which are (1) masculine or neuter in Latin, (2) which have no e mute, (3) which are masculine in French. Here again no struggle is possible. (c) To give the origin of those nouns which follow the rule of the e mute in opposition to the etymology. In them the French law is obeyed—that is sufficient.* 9. A large number of French nouns are derived from Latin adjectives, present participles, past participles, stems of verbs, etc. The Latin in them exercises little direct influence. They rarely break the rule of e mute. 10. The anomalous nouns, which follow neither the etymology nor the rule of e mute, are very few in number. Some might be traced to the custom of the popular Latin; some to the influence of the Teutonic tribes; some are simple blunders. § 233. Substantives of Double Gender. The distinctions of gender in these substantives have nothing to do with sex, like those in § 230. They arise from a difference of derivation; from a struggle between the Latin ending and the French ending; from the influence of some word understood, etc. In some cases it seems impossible to point out any reason. These distinctions of gender have been utilized with more or less success to obtain distinctions of meaning. Or perhaps more often the double gender has followed the double meaning. But it must be acknowledged that frequently the distinctions both of meaning and of gender are far-fetched and useless. Still they exist, and cannot be overlooked. They may be thus classified: French nouns of double gender from Latin neuters. Masculine Latin ending versus feminine French ending. Reasons various. Reason not apparent. * This is often done in Grammars; it makes the lists needlessly long. § 234. Nouns of double Genders from Latin Neuters. (1) Most Latin neuters have become masculine : or from aurum argent from argentum. (2) Some have added e, but have nevertheless become masculine: regnum cadavre marbre cadaver marmor règne signe (3) The ending -a of the Latin neuter plural was often mistaken for a feminine singular. Hence many French feminines : arme feuille arma folia poire pira (4) In some nouns a struggle seems to have gone on between the masculine gender demanded by the French noun, as seen in the ending -um of the Latin, and the supposed feminine gender required, as seen in the ending -a of the Latin.* Hence the following anomalies in gender. Espace (spatium). Espace, feminine. Quand on l'eut regarde une espace, on l'osta de la et fut pendu a un arbre. (FROISSART.) This feminine remains in espace, "lead," of printers: Il y a des espaces petites, fortes, minces, moyennes pour donner au compositeur la facilité de justifier. (LITTRE.) In other senses espace is now masculine. Orgue (organum). Orgue is masculine in the singular, feminine in the plural. Formerly both forms were feminine. * No doubt in some instances the struggle is between the ending Latin -um and the French ending -e. In the absence of any direct evidence, it is but right to assume that the noun has been derived from the singular, but that the addition of the final 'e mute' has overruled the etymology, and has made the word feminine. The evidence of the plural derivation must often be drawn from the sister languages, Italian, Spanish, Provençal, etc. This seems to have been the rule followed by Littré. He gives in some cases the plural neuter in -a as the parent of the feminine French, in others the singular in -um. It would be of small use for our present purpose to distinguish in each case, even if it were possible. The main point is to assign a reason for distinctions which otherwise appear puerile. In Old French, many words of similar origin, now definitely fixed in their gender, had double genders; a few are given below. 1. Date, now feminine (Lat. datum, data.) Fait au temps de la dite date. (VILLON, 15th cent.) Ceux-ci alleguaient qu'une requete envoice d'une si bonne ville, trouverait que le date est efficacieux. (D'AUBIGNE, 16th cent.) 2. Etable, now feminine. (Lat. stabulum, stabula.) Car a tart comence a fermer s'estable cil qui a perdu son cheval. (Lai du Trat, 13th cent.) Il ne faut pas. • faire un estable et vie a part. (CALV. Inst., 16th cent.) 3. Etude, now feminine. (Lat. studium, studia.) Etude pour un lieu ou l'on etudie est feminin; etude pour travail d'etudier est masculin ; qui fait au contraire n'y entend rien." (MALHERBE, 16th century.) 66 Euvre (opera). Euvre, from opera, plural of opus. Euvre = work, is now usually feminine.* Till lately it was common in the masculine : Sans cela toute fable est un oeuvre imparfait. (LA FONTAINE.) This masculine remains in a few exceptional cases: (1) As a term of architecture: Gros œuvre = plus grosses. les murailles les (2) As a law term: Dénonciation de nouvel œuvre. (3) In speaking collectively of the work of an artist or musician Avoir tout l'œuvre de Callot. (4) In speaking of the philosopher's stone: Le grand œuvre.t Greffe (graphium). Un greffe = record office. Une greffe Both were masculine in Old French. Un office Office (officium). = a graft. duty, church-time, etc. Une office = pantry. Both genders are found in Old French in all senses. "Exemple a été fait plus d'une fois féminin: Dire que cette exemple est fort mal assortie." (REGNIER). Aujourd'hui il est constamment masculin; cependant le féminin s'est conservé longtemps dans le sens d'exemple d'écriture; et l'Académie dit encore aujourd'hui, que plusieurs personnes font en ce sens exemple du féminin, mais il n'y a aucune raison pour conserver cette anomalie." (LITTRÉ.) Orge (hordeum). (1) In Old French orge was more often masculine, according to etymology: Tout fromant, tout ble, tout orge. (Livres des Métiers, 13th cent.) So Bossuet, in 17th cent.: La meule d'un moulin ne moudra que ce qu'on met dessous, si c'est de l'orge on aura de l'orge moulu. (Elév. sur Mystères.) But it was also found in feminine, according to ending: En une orge. (Renart, 13th cent.) (2) The ending eventually fixed the gender, except in the phrases, orge mondé, orge perlé, orge carré. But even these are now sometimes found in feminine, and justly. Un manche, a handle. Manche. Une manche, a sleeve, channel, etc. Littré derives un manche from a Low Latin word, manicum ; une manche is regularly derived from Latin manica. * According to ending. enced the feminine gender. + Is this "masculine," the Doubtless the Latin opera, operae, has influPerhaps the word has a double derivation. same as grand' faim, grand merci! (§ 207.) § 235. Difference of gender from a difference of origin. un délice nouveau; des délices nouvelles. This word follows the Latin. The neuter delicium has given regularly the masculine délice. The feminine delicia has given the feminine délices. Foudre. le foudre tun (German, das Fuder). la foudre thunder (Lat., fulgur, neuter). In the latter sense foudre is often masculine according to etymology. (See also § 230. y.) Livre. a book (Lat., librum). Ombre. hombre, at cards, from Spanish hombre = homme. Poêle. = pall (Lat., pallium ?). Somme. sleep (Lat., somnus). load (Low Lat., salma). Sum (Lat. summa). Tour. turn, trick (Lat., tornus, lathe). tower (Lat., turris). § 236. Gender influenced by word understood. Interligne (Lat. inter-linea). un interligne, space between two lines. (Compare § 234, espace). une interligne, printer's lead. le triomphe une horloge à pendule. pretext (Lat. praetextus). Triomphe. triumph (Lat. triumphus). la triomphe (old) = carte qui triomphe. (English trump.) |