thews a gradual condensation, or increasing brightness, towards a center or certain point; whether the outward shape of fuch clusters or nebulæ be round, extended, or of any other given form. What has been faid with regard to the doctrine of chance, will of course apply to every cluster, and more especially to the extended and irregular shaped ones, on account of their greater size: It is among these that we find the largest assemblages of ftars, and most diffusive nebulosities; and therefore the odds against such assemblages happening without fome particular power to gather them, increase exceedingly with the number of the stars that are taken together. But if the gradual accumulation either of stars or increasing brightness has before been admitted as a direction to the feat of power, the fame effect will equally point out the same cause in the cafes now under confideration. There are befides some additional circumstances in the appearance of extended clusters and nebulæ, that very much favour the idea of a power lodged in the brightest part. Although the form of them be not globular, it is plainly to be seen that there is a tendence towards spherici ty, by the fwell of the dimensions the nearer we draw towards the most luminous place, denoting as it were a course, or tide of stars, setting towards a center. And if allegorical expreffions may be allowed-it should feem as if the stars thus flocking towards the feat of power were stemmed by the crowd of those already affembled, and that while some of them are fuccefsful in forcing their predecessors fideways out of their places, others are themselves obliged to take up with lateral fituations, while all of them fecm equally to strive for a place in the central swelling, and generating spherical figure. Since then almost all the nebulæ and clusters of stars I have feen, the number of which is not less than three and twenty hundred, are more condensed and brighter in the middle; and fince, from every form, it is now equally apparent that the central accumulation or brightness must be the refult of central powers, we may venture to affirm that this theory is no longer an unfounded hypothesis, but is fully established on grounds which cannot be overturned. Let us endeavour to make some use of this important view of the constructing cause, which can thus model sidereal systems. Perhaps, by placing before us the very extensive and varied collection of clusters, and nebulæ furnished by my catalogues, we may be able to trace the progress of its operation, in the great laboratory of the Universe. If these clusters and nebulæ were all of the same shape, and had the same gradual condensation, we should make but little progress in this inquiry; but, as we find so great a variety in their appearances, we shall be much fooner at a lofs how to account for fuch various phænomena, than be in want of materials upon which to exexcife our inquisitive endeavours. Some of these round clusters confist of stars of a certain magnitude, and given degree of compression, while the whole cluster itself takes up a space of perhaps 10 minutes; others appear to be made up of stars that are much smaller, and much more compressed, when at the fame time the clufter itfelf fubtends a much smaller angle, fuch as 5 minutes. This diminution of the apparent fize, and compression of stars, as well as diameter of the cluster to 4, 3, 2 minutes, may very confiftently bo ascribed to the different distances of these clusters from the place in which we observe them; in all which cafes we may admit a general equality of the sizes and compression of the stars that compose them, to take place. It is also highly probable that a continuation of fuch decreasing magnitudes, and increasing com 1 : compression, will juftly account for the spherical clusters. Any force, that appearance of round, easily refolvable, acts uninterruptedly, must produce efnebulæ; where there is almost a cer- fects proportional to the time of its tainty of their being clusters of stars. And no Astronomer can hefitate to go still farther, and extend his furmises by imperceptible steps to other nebulæ, that still preferve the fame characteristics, with the only variations of vanishing brightness, and reduction of fize. action. Now, as it has been shewn that the spherical figure of a cluster of stars is owing to central powers, it follows that these clusters which ceteris paribus, are the most compleat in this figure, must have been the longest exposed to the action of these caufes. This will admit of various points of views, Suppose, for instance, that 5000 stars had been once in a certain scattered situation, and that other 5000 equal stars had been in the same situa Other clusters there are that, when they come to be compared with some of the former, seem to contain stars of an equal magnitude, while their compreffion appears to be confiderably tion, then that of the two clusters different. Here the supposition of which had been longest exposed to the their being at different distances will action of the modelling power, we either not explain the apparently greater compression, or, if admitted to do this, will convey to us a very instructive confequence: which is, that the stars which are thus supposed not to be more compressed than those in the former cluster, but only to appear so on account of their greater diftance, must needs be proportionally larger, since they do not appear of less magnitude than the former. As therefore, one or other of these hypotheses must be true, it is not at all improbable but that, in some instances, the stars may be more compressed; and in others, of a greater magnitude. This variety of size in different spherical clusters, I am however inclined to believe, may not go farther than the difference in fiže, found among the individuals belonging to the same species of plants, or animals, in their different states of age, or vegetation, after they are come to a certain degree of growth. A farther inquiry into the circumstance of the extent, both of condensation and variety of fize, that may take place with the stars of different clusters, we shall poftpone till other things have been previously discussed. Let us then continue to turn our view to the power which is moulding the different affortments of stars into VOL. XI. No. 61. D suppose, would be most condensed, and more advanced to the maturity of its figure. An obvious consequence that may be drawn from this consideration is, that we are enabled to judge of the relative age, maturity, or climax of a sidereal system, from the disposition of its component parts; and, making the degrees of brightness in nebulæ ftand for the different accumulation of stars in clusters, the same conclufions will extend equally to them all. But we are not to conclude from what has been said that every spherical clufter is of an equal standing in regard to absolute duration, fince one that is composed of a thousand stars only must certainly arrive to the perfection of its form fooner than another, which takes in a range of a million. Youth and age are comparative expressions; and an oak of a certain age may be called very young, while a cotemporary shrub is already on the verge of its decay. So that, for instance, a cluster or nebula which is very gradually more compressed and bright towards the middle, may be in the perfection of its growth, when another which approaches to the condition pointed out by a more equal compression, fuch as the nebulæ I have called Planetary seem to present us with, may be look ed ed upon as very aged, and drawing on towards a period of change, or diffolution. This has been before furmised, when, in a former paper, I confidered the uncommon.degree of compression that must prevail in a nebula to give it a planetary aspect; but the argument, which is now drawn from the powers that have collected the form erly scattered stars to the form we find they have affumed, must greatly cor roborate that fentiment. and one advantage we may at least reap from it is, that we can, as it were, extend the range of our experience to an immenfe duration. For, to con tinue the simile I have borrowed from the vegetable kingdom, is it not almost the same thing, whether we live successively to witness the germination, blooming, foliage, fecundity, fading, withering, and corruption of a plant, or whether a vast number of specimens, selected from every stage through which the plant passes in the course of its existence, be brought at once to our view?.. This method of viewing the heas vens seems to throw them into a new kind of light. They now are seen to resemble a luxuriant garden, which contains the greatest variety of productions, in different flourishing beds; Slough near Windfor, May 1, 1789. WILLIAM HERSCHEL. On the Harmony of the Dead Languages. From d'Alembert's Thoughts, Maxims, and Principles. E every day hear men of letters Wexpatiating on the shar the Greek and Latin languages, and on the fuperiority of these over the modern languages, without reckoning other advantages still greater, which they attribute to the nature and genius of the former. Admiration for the harmony of the dead and learned languages, is particularly remarkable in those who, having spent much time in studying them, are apt to flatter themselves, that they understand them well, and who, perhaps, do understand them as well as it is possible for a dead language to be understood, that is, very imperfectly. This enthusiasm, which is not always as genuine as it appears, originates in a very pardonable self-love. After having been long employed in the study of a language, we are unwilling to think that our time has been thrown away, we even wish to seem, in the eyes of others, amply rewarded for the pains we have taken, and we often say with affected tranffport: Ab! if you but understood Greek! Those who understand, or think they understand the Hebrew, the Arabic, the Syriac, the Coptic, the Perfian, the Chinese, &c. think and speak in the fame way, and for the fame reason. The language they have learnt is always the most beautiful, the most copious, the most harmonious; just asta dependant always thinks his patron a fuperior man. But when the merit of a man in power is exposed to public view, the praises bestowed on him, if he is unworthy of them, are scornfully disallowed by the public; while the languages that are called learned, being almost entirely unknown, expose their panegyrists to no danger of contradiction; as those who are in a capacity of doing so are equally interested in preaching up the value of the object of their study and attention. But the modern Greek and Latin scholars are not quite at their ease; as many besides themselves have a fmattering of Greek, and a reasonable acquaintance with the Latin tongue, it is easy to embarrass them on the subject -fubject of their admiration. It is faid, for example, the French, the English, the Germans, and the Italians, pronounce the Latin language very differently from each other, in fo much, that they scarce understand one another when pronouncing it, and you would hardly ima gine they were speaking the fame language: all of them think it very harmonious; but can they all be ferious fince, properly speaking, it is not the fame language they are pronouncing? and does it not therefore follow, that that pretended harmony, which the modern admirers of the Latin tongue, exalt so much, exists at least as much in their imagination as in their ears? In order to decide this question, as well at least as it is in our power to do, we must first of all examine what is understood, or ought to be understood, by the harmony of a language; we must then determine in what the harmony of a dead language can confitt, with regard to us, and especially what that harmony is in the Latin Janguage, which of all the dead ones, is the most familiar and best known. Let us, first of all, take notice, that what is called the harmony of a language, ought rather to be called its melody. For harmony is properly the pleasure arifing from several founds heard at once; melody is that which refults from a fuccession of fingle founds: now, what is called the harmony of a language, is the pleasure which refults from the succession of founds in a discourse pronounced in that language; and it would, therefore, be better to give this pleasure the name of melody: but this by the bye; we will abide by the terms in common ufe, after having fettled the precife idea which belongs to them. In order to analyse the pleasure which refults from a fuccession of sounds, we must decompose that fucceffion into its parts and elements: thus, phrafes are compofed of words, and words of fyllables. Let us begin then with fyllables, which are formed either of simple vowels, or of confonants joined with vowels. Now, of vowels and confonants some are more easily pronounced than others, they are more or less mute, more or lefs harsh, and it is the combination of these vowels and confonants which makes a fyllable more or less soft, more or less dull. Besides, as there are fyllables which are more or less easily pronounced, there are also successions of fyllables which are more easily pronounced than others. One syllable is more easily or with more difficulty pronounced after another, according as the organs of pronunciation preserve the disposition they were in at pronouncing the firit, or are obliged to change it. On which account we must remark, that two confecutive confonants form each a syilable, because there is always neceffasily a mute é interposed between them; and as this e mute passes quickly, and is not pronounced, the organs are obliged to make the greater effort to mark the double confonant. This is the reason why languages, such as the German, which abound in confonants following close upon one another; are more harsh than those languages in which the confonants are not so frequent. A language abounding in vowels, and especially in soft vowels, like the Italian, would be the softest of all; it would not be the most harmonious, for melody, in order to be agreeable, must not only be foft, but varied. A language which should have, like the Spanith, a happy mixture of vowels and of soft and sonorous confonants, would perhaps be the most harmonious of the living and modern languages. Melody in fpeech has a good deal of analogy with musical melody. An air in which only the intervals of the diatonie scale should be employed, would be languid; an air that should confut only of the most perfect concords, such as the third and fifth, would be infipid infipid and monotonous. It is necef lary to mix with judgment larger in tervals, in order to please the ear, and even difcordant intervals; for pleasure results from variety, and is never excited without it. The diatonic intervals and concords must predominate in mufic; but difcords and the chromatic intervals, must be introduced with taste. For a Gmilar reason, the most harmonious language will be that in which the words are most mixed with soft and fonorous syllables, even though fome of these last be a little rude: the harshest language will be that in which the hard and dull fyllables prevail. D2 There is still another fource of harmony in languages, that which results from the arrangement of the words. This depends in part on the language itself, and in part on him that uses it; while the harmony that arifes from detached words depends only on the language alone. It is not in my power to alter the words of a language, but it is in my power, to a certain de gree at leaft, to arrange them in the most harmonious order. It must, however, be confefled, that different languages are more or less apt, to take this difpofition. The more a language abounds in harth or dull fyllables, the more attention it requires, on the partof the speaker or writer, not to multiply too much in the same sentence, words which include the same sort of fyllables; the more soft syllables and the fewer sonorous ones a language poffeffes, it requires the greater attention to prevent the melody from becoming too foft, or, if I may say so, too effeminate. When a language has a happy mixture of foft and of fonorous expreffions, it becomes more easy to compose in such a language, harmonious sentences. In like manner, a language which permits inversion, and confequently, in which the arrangement of the words is more arbitrary to a certain degree, i. is certainly more fufceptible of harmony in speech, than a language which allows no inversion, and confequently in which the arrangement is forced. : Let us apply these principles to the Latin tongue: we will be aftonished to find of what little use they will be, in order to determine in what the har mony of that language, so far as we are judges, confifts. We are totally ignorant of the manner in which the Romans pronounced the greatest part of their vowels and confonants, and confequently we can judge but imperfectly of what the harmony of their language confifted. We have only reason to believe, that its inverfion made it easier for them than for us, to confult the harmony of their fentences; but as to the harmony which results from words taken by themselves and in connection with others, we must honestly confefs, that we are very little sensible of it. I say, that we are but little fenfible of it; for I do not deny that we may perceive somewhat of it, in fo far as it regards the intermixture of vowels with consonants, in words whether detached or in connection. But how imperfect must our idea, even of that harmony be, confidering our igno rance of the true pronunciation! We know, moreover, that the Latins, but particularly the Greeks, elevated or lowered the voice on a great many fyllables, a 'circumstance which would necessarily contribute to the melody of their enunciation, especi ally when the rife or fall of the voice was conducted in a manner agreeable to the ear: but we, in pronouncing the Latin and the Greek, do not at all practice these elevations and finkings which were so familiar to the ancients; and this is another source of pleasure/arising from the harmony of these languages to which we have no access. It appears to me, that there is but one } |