ideas formed: first, by singulars, which the senses represent confusedly and imperfectly; secondly, by signs, that is, by associating the remembrances of things with words, which Spinoza calls imagination; thirdly, by reason; and, fourthly, by intuitive knowledge. Knowledge of the first kind is the source of error; the second and third are necessarily true. It is important to distinguish images from words. Those who think ideas consist in images which they perceive, fancy that ideas of which they can form no image are arbitrary. They look at ideas as pictures on a tablet, and hence do not understand that an idea, as such, involves an affirmation or negation. And those who confound words with ideas fancy they can will something contrary to what they perceive, because they can affirm or deny it in words. But thought does not involve the conception of extension; and therefore an idea, or mode of thought, neither consists in images nor in words, the essence of which consists in corporeal motions not involving the conception of thought. Men can have an adequate knowledge of the eternal and infinite being of God, but cannot imagine God as they can bodies; and hence have not that clear perception of his being which they have of that of bodies, and have perplexed themselves by associating the word God with sensible images, which it is hard to avoid. The existence of God can be conceived; indeed it is a necessary conception from which no mind can escape; but the manner of his existence can never be conceived. The source of error in this case is that men do not name things correctly; for they do not err in their own minds, but in this application; as men who cast up wrong see different numbers in their minds from those in the true result The mind has no free will, but is determined by a cause, which itself is determined by some other cause, and so on for ever. For the mind is only a mode of thinking, and therefore cannot be the free cause of its actions. Will and understanding are one and the same thing; and volitions are only affirmations or negations, each of which belongs to the essence of the idea affirmed or denied. This subtle opinion is also adopted by Malebranche, Cudworth, and Fichte. We are acted upon when anything takes place within us which cannot wholly be explained by our own nature. Passions are the affections of the body, which increase or diminish its power of action, and they are also the ideas of those affections. Neither the body can determine the mind to thinking, not can the mind determine the body to rest or motion. For all that takes place in body must be caused by God, considered under his attribute of extension, and all that takes place in mind must be caused by God, considered under his attribute of thought. The mind and the body are but one thing considered under different attributes; the order of action and passion in the body being the same in nature with that of action and passion in the mind. But men, though ignorant how far the natural powers of body reach, ascribe its operations to the determination of the mind, veiling their ignorance in specious words. For if they allege that the body cannot act without the mind, it may be answered that the mind cannot think till impelled by the body, nor are all the volitions of the mind anything else than its appetites, which are modified by the body. All things endeavour to continue in their actual being; this endeavour being nothing else than their essence, which causes them to be, until some exterior cause destroys their being. The mind is conscious of its own endeavour to continue as it is, which is, in other words, the appetite that seeks self-preservation; what the mind is thus conscious of seeking, it judges to be good, and not inversely. Many things increase or diminish the power of action in the body, and all such things have a corresponding effect on the power of thinking in the mind. Thus it undergoes many changes, and passes through different stages of more or less perfect power of thinking. Joy is the name of a passion, in which the mind passes to a greater perfection or power of thinking; grief, one in which it passes to a less. From these two passions, and from desire, Spinoza deduces all the rest of the passions in a curious but questionable manner. Such is the substance of Spinoza's celebrated system; a system which has excited so much odium as to have become synonymous with atheism. We have pointed out the source of this error; but we cannot refrain from adding the testiSpinoza's moral system is as rigidly deduced from pre- mony of the pious Schleiermacher to his religious earnestmises as his metaphysical. Most men who have written on ness. Offer up with me,' he exclaims, with reverence a moral subjects, he says, have treated man as something out lock of hair to the manes of the holy but repudiated Spinoza! of nature, as a kind of imperium in imperio,' rather than as The great spirit of the world penetrated him; the Infinite a part of the general order. They have conceived him to was his beginning and his end; the universe his only and enjoy a power of disturbing that order by his own deter- eternal love. He was filled with religion and religious mination, and ascribed his weakness and inconstancy not to feeling; and therefore is it that he stands alone, unapthe necessary laws of the system, but to some strange defect proachable, the master in his art, but elevated above the in himself, which they cease not to lament, deride, or exe- profane world, without adherents, and without even citizen crate. But the acts of mankind, and the passions from ship.' (Rede über die Religion, p. 47.) Göthe thus speaks; which they proceed, are in reality but links in the series,The mind that wrought so powerfully on mine, and had so and proceed in harmony with the common laws of universal great an influence on the whole frame of my opinions, was nature. Men finding many things in themselves and in Spinoza's. After I had looked round the world in vain for nature, serving as means to a certain good, which things means of shaping my strange moral being, I fell at length on they know to have not been provided by themselves, have the Ethics' of this man. What I read in this work-what I believed that some one has provided them, arguing by ana- thought I read in it-I can give no account of; enough that logy of the means which they in other instances employ I found there a calm to my passions; it seemed to open to themselves. Hence they have imagined a variety of gods, me a wide and free view over the sensuous and moral world and these gods they suppose to consult the good of men in But what particularly riveted me was the boundless disin order to be worshipped by them, and have devised every terestedness that beamed forth from every sentence. The means of superstitious devotion to ensure the favour of these all-equalizing serenity of Spinoza contrasted with my alldivinities. Finding also in the midst of so many beneficial agitating vehemence; his mathematical precision, with my things in nature not a few of an opposite effect, they have poetical way of feeling and representing.' (Dichtung und ascribed them to the anger of the gods on account of Wahrheit, xiv.) the neglect of men to worship them. Nor has the experience of calamities falling alike on the pious and impious cured them of this belief; they choose rather to acknowledge their ignorance why good and evil are thus distributed, than give up their favourite theory. But all things occur by eternal necessity. Moreover were God to act for an end, he must desire something which he wants; for it is acknowledged by theologians that he acts for his own sake and not for the sake of things created. Men having thought that all things were created for them, have invented names to distinguish that as good which tends to their benefit; and believing themselves free, have got the notions of right and wrong, praise and dispraise. And when they can easily apprehend the relations of things, they call them well ordered, if not, ill ordered; as if order were anything except in regard to our imagination of it. We are said to act when anything takes place within us, or without us, for which we are an adequate cause; that is, when it may be explained by means of our own nature alone. P C., No. 1403. These testimonies from such unquestionable sources will not be without benefit in directing men to look calmly into Spinoza, and meditate upon him. The student will derive great help from Boulainvilliers's Refutation de Spinoza Bruxelles, 1731, in which the doctrines are popularized and divested of their mathematical precision, which repels many readers; also from Jacobi's Briefwechsel mit Mendelssohn, Breslau, 1789; and from Hallam's History of the Literature of Europe, vol. iv., pp. 243-263.) SPIREA, a genus of plants of the natural family Rosacea, tribe Spirace. The name occurs in antient authors, and is supposed to be derived from σяupa, a cord, in allusion to the fitness of the plants for twisting into garlands. The genus is diffused through the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere, and is characterised by having a 5-cleft permanent calyx; stamens 10 to 50, in serted in a torus with the 5 petals, which are inserted into the calyx; carpels sessile, solitary or several, rarely connected into a capsule; seeds 2-15, pendulous, very rarely ascendVOL. XXII.-2 Z ing. The species, upwards of 50 in number, form small Equation. * = αθ r0= a there is one succession of convolutions beginning with OABCD, and another beginning with OA6Cd. But the second equation, which is only the first in a different form, does not yield any of the second set of convolutions, unless by means of the negative values of the radius vector answering to negative values of 0. The manner in which the negative value of r is to be treated, is as follows:-Every line passing through the origin, as POQ, makes two angles with the positive side of the axis of x, POD, less than a right angle in the diagram, and QOD, between two and three right angles: the second of which may be considered as the common angle QOD, taken negatively. The bounding directions of these angles are different, OP and OQ: the rule is, whichever angle the straight line QOP is supposed to make with OD, let the bounding direction of that angle be the positive direction, and the other direction negative. Thus, when POD is the angle, OP is positive and OQ negative: when QOD is the angle, OQ is positive and OP negative. In this manner it will be found that the first three of the four spirals above enumerated have never been completely drawn. There is little need to insist much on the necessity of the extension here described: one more instance may suffice. Let the reader trace the curve whose equation is 2y2 = 1 — 4x 2x2± √18x, SPIRAL of ARCHIMEDES. (SPIRAL.] with some others of less note. The figures of these spirals are given in all books on the application of algebra to geo-lopment of the tissues of plants two tendencies are observed, metry. It has hitherto been universal to consider spirals in a manner which has deprived these curves of half their convolutions this has been done by refusing to entertain negative values of the radius. For example, in the spiral of Archimedes rao, a being a positive quantity, the curve is supposed to have no convolutions when is negative, or when the radius revolves negatively. The consequence is, that the curve begins abruptly at the origin. It would be a matter of little importance to insist on the existence of the additional branches which belong to the negative radii, if it were not that the other mode of representing curves, by means of rectangular coordinates, always gives the additional branches: so that, if we refuse to receive the latter as coming from the polar equation, we have only the alternative of supposing that the mere transformation of coordinates destroys a part of the curve. In the spiral of Archimedes, for example, the rectangular and polar equations are√ (x2 + y2) y=x tan a rae. the one simply that of extension in a vertical direction, the other is that of curvation, mostly resulting in the production of a spire. The tendency to develop parts in a spiral direction, though much more prominent in the vegetable than the animal kingdom, is by no means confined to it. In a recent paper in the ninth volume of the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Mandl has shown that all the tegumentary appendages of animals, as the scales, feathers, hair, &c., have a spiral arrangement, and that many of the internal organs are subject to the same law. The tendency to develop structures in a spiral form appears to be depen dent on some of the higher laws regulating organic life; and in this view the subject has been investigated by recent botanists. Goethe, the German poet and philosopher, to whom botanists are indebted for the development of those theoretical views of the structure of plants on which is based the science of morphology, has investigated this subject. In his Essay on the Spiral Tendency of Vegetation,' published in 1831, he gives the following view. He sup poses that there is a dependence of those properties which plants possess of resisting external agents, and of enduring The first, treated in the usual way, gives a curve of which for a length of time, upon those parts that are developed vertically, whilst the nutritive and reproductive functions are connected with spirally developed structures. In support of this generalization he adduces a number of facts. If a branch of an ash-tree is injured, so that the lower parts become over-nourished, it possesses a tendency to become spiral. When the leaves of the Italian poplar are injured by insects, the petioles become twisted. Spiral vessels exist in greatest numbers in the growing parts of plants, as the alburnum. They also exist in greater numbers in the higher plants, the lowest possessing none. A spiral arrangement of parts is also much less observable in the lower than in the higher groups of plants. The organs of nutrition and reproduction, the leaves and parts of the | Mohl has pointed out an essential difference. The cirrhi are first developed longitudinally, and the spiral tendency proceeds from the point to the base; but in stems the first three or four internodes grow straight, and the next internode is developed very rapidly; and from this lower internode the spiral tendency is developed upwards. Sometimes a spiral direction is seen in the direction of trees that ordi narily grow straight; and Göthe records several instances of twisted trunks in the chesnut, the whitethorn, beech, and others. A remarkable instance of spiral structure connected with function is seen in the peduncle of the female flowers of Valisneria, which is a water-plant. The female flowers spring to the surface of the water in the summer, at the time the male flowers have perfected their pollen and scattered it upon the surface of the water. As soon as the pollen is conveyed to the female flower, its spiral stem becomes contracted, and its fruit is perfected at the bottom of the water. flower, have normally a spiral arrangement. Von Martius, Mohl, and others, have also written on the general theory of spiral structure. We shall confine ourselves to pointing out those plants and parts of plants that exhibit this structure. Cellular tissue was at one time supposed to consist of plain simple cells, but the researches of later botanists have proved that the cells of this tissue are often furnished with fibres, which are twisted in a spiral manner. This spiral fibrous tissue is abundant in the roots of orchidaceous plants, in the seed-coats of many plants, and in the linings of the valves of almost all anthers. Spiral fibres, independent of any cells, and apparently surrounded by vegetable mucus, have been found in the testa of the seeds of Collomia linearis. In the seed-coats of the seeds of species of Blepharis and Acanthodium spiral fibres enclosed in membranous tubes are found in very great abundance. The organs called elaters, which are contained with the sporules in the conceptacles of Jungermannia, consist of spiral fibres surrounded by a tube. A structure also of this kind has Many theories have been proposed to account for the been described as existing in a species of Trichia, but in mere winding of the stem. Dutrochet supposes that it degeneral the fungi do not present any spiral structure in pends on the different relations of cellular and fibrous tissue their parts. The elaters are analogous in structure to to each other in plants during the action of endosmose. Mohl the vascular tissue, which is almost entirely composed thinks that it arises from the irritability of the tissues of of a tissue, which on account of its spiral structure these plants, which, on the plant being placed in contact with has been called 'spiral vessels.' These vessels appear certain external objects, is called into action, producing the to be little more than fibrous cellular tissue elongated, the peculiar development observed. This irritability is supposed parietes of the cell forming an elongated tube, which is only to exist on the sides and under surface of the twining tapering at each extremity, and contains within it one, part, and when called into action contracts and produces the two, three, or more spiral fibres. This tissue is exceedingly twisting of the unaffected part. These explanations are not abundant in exogenous and endogenous plants, but is not satisfactory. The spiral structure is too intimately confound in the lower families of Cryptogamia. It exists how-nected with the essential existence of plants to be explained ever in ferns, Lycopodiacea, and Equisetaceæ. It is only in all cases by a reference to immediate agents. sparingly found in Coniferæ. These spiral fibres possess the power of moving when touched, which was attributed by Malpighi to irritability, but De Candolle attributes this to their hygrometrical properties. From the tissues we pass on to the entire plant, where we frequently see the spiral tendency developed in the structure of stem and leaves. The part of the latter which exhibits this structure is the petiole, and in this organ all forms of the spire may be seen, from a single twist to the complicated spires observed in the organs called cirrhi. In most plants these cirrhi assist them in climbing, their structure adapting them to this purpose. The spires of the cirrhi twist in some from right to left, in others from left to right; and in the cirrhi of the genera Passiflora and Bryonia the direction changes several times in the course of the spire from right to left and from left to right. In the structure of many of the Conferva a spiral arrangement of the tissues is observed, especially of those which approach the animal kingdom in their movements, as the Oscillatoriæ. The set which support the conceptacle of Jungermannia, and which contain the spiral elaters before mentioned, possess in many instances a spiral structure. This is also occasionally developed in the same organ in mosses, a remarkable instance of which occurs in Funaria hygrometrica. In this moss the set are quite straight when young, but assume the spiral structure as they increase in age. In these setæ the spire turns in two directions; from the base about two-thirds up the stem it goes from right to left; it then becomes quite straight, and turns in the opposite direction from left to right. A curious property is possessed by these setæ when the capsules are ripe. If the upper part of the spiral is moistened, the capsule commences turning from right to left; but if the lower part only is moistened, it turns from left to right. The entire stems of plants are frequently spiral, as is seen in the plants which are called climbers. These plants, by reason of the spiral arrangement of their tissues, twine around the nearest objects, whether organic or inorganic. In most of them the winding of the spire is to the left side, but in a few the turning is to the right. Amongst the former are the genera Cuscuta, Phaseolus, Dolichos, Passiflora, Banisteria, &c.; amongst the latter are the genera Humulus, Dioscorea, Lonicera, Polygonum, &c. This winding in a particular direction is not only confined to the species of a genus, but to the genera of an order; and Mohl, who has paid great attention to this subject, states that he knows of but one exception to this rule, which is the genus Abrus in the family of Leguminosa, which twines to the left, whilst all the others twine to the right. The direction of the spires of the cirrhi is not so constant. Between the twining of the cirrhi and the stems of plants The most remarkable and important exhibition, in a practical point of view, of the spiral tendency in plants is the arrangement of the leaves upon the axis of the plant. If we take a branch of the willow, oak, pear, apple, or many others, and examine the leaves, we shall find they are arranged in such a manner, that if we were to draw a line from leaf to leaf up the stem, we should produce upon it a spiral which would in the case of any of these trees be of a different character from any of the others. In theoretical botany the spiral arrangement of the leaves which makes them alternate upon the stem is looked upon as their normal form, and those leaves which are opposite or verticillate are supposed to be produced by the suppression of an internodium. The spiral arrangement of the leaves on the stem has been made a matter of mathematical investigation by Braun and Schimper, and it is found that this arrangement is possessed of certain fixed mathematical properties. Of course the same observations are applicable to all those parts of the plant, as the bracts, sepals, petals, scales of the fruit, &c., which are considered modifications of the leaf. The fruit of the common pine may be taken as an illustration of these properties. If the cone of a pine or a spruce-fir be broken through the middle, three scales will be observed, which, at first sight, appear to be upon the same plane; but a more attentive examination shows that they really originate at different heights, and moreover, that they are not placed at equal distances from each other; so that we cannot consider then as a whorl, but only a portion of a very close spiral. But considering the external surface of the cone viewed as a whole, we find that the scales are disposed in oblique lines, which may be studied-1, As to their composition or the number of scales requisite to form one complete turn of the spire; 2, as to their inclination, or the angle, more or less open, which they form with their axis; 3, as to their total number, and their arrangement round the common axis, which constitutes their co-ordination. Finally, we may endeavour to ascertain whether the spires turn from right to left or vice versa.' (Lindley.) In the arrangement of the leaves several series of spires are discoverable, and between these there constantly exists a certain arithmetical relation which may be expressed by figures, and which results from the combination of the elements of which they are composed. All the spires depend upon the position of a fundamental series, from which the others are deviations. The nature of this series is expressed by a fraction, of which the numerator expresses the number of turns which make up one spire, whilst the denominator expresses the number of leaves, scales. &c. upon the spire. So that suppose we mark the seat of one leaf at the bottom 0, and go on following the leaves, we shall come at one directly over the first, and this completes the spire; often a leaf occurs after ten turns of the spiral, and there should be eighteen leaves upon the spire, the expression for this series would be. By applying this rule very different figures may be obtained for various plants. The following are results obtained by Braun : is the expression for the leaves of Woad, Plantago lanceolata, and the bracts of Digitalis lanata. in Sempervivum arboreum, and the bracts of Plantago media. is a common form; it exists in the bay tree, the holly, and Aconite. is the most common, representing the quincunx. It is seen in Mezereum, Lapsana communis, the potato, &c. is seen in the spikes of all grasses, in Asraum, the limetree, the vetch, and pea. No application of this doctrine has at present been made, and these researches are only in their infancy. It seems in some genera to be a mode of distinguishing species. Thus the expressions for the following species of Pinus are P. pinaster; P. sylvestris ; P. cembra ; P. larix ; P. micro carpa 3. For further information on the subject of this article the reader may consult Göthe, Ueber die Spiral-Tendenz der Vegetation; Meyen, Pflanzen-Physiologie, Band iii.: Lindley, Introduction to Botany; Henslow's Botany, in Cab. Cyc.; Virey, Philosophie de l'Histoire Naturelle. up into the slender tapering spire. According to such supposition, we would refer to the tower of Than church in Normandy, as an example exhibiting the rudiments of the spire, it being no more than a steep peaked roof or low pyramid, whose height does not exceed three-fourths of its base. A peak of this kind differs also from the spire both in being the same in plan as the tower on which it is placed, and in being immediately set upon it, whereas the spire is almost invariably an octagon or other polygon, and is surrounded at its base with a parapet. In Italy, where campaniles are usually detached square towers of very slender or lofty proportions, the spire is almost unknown, for such towers have seldom more than a mere pyramidal roof or peak, which, though it may be considered as the germ from which the Gothic spire was afterwards developed, is in itself of quite different character; yet, at the same time, that of each is best adapted to the respective style. There are some few instances of square spires; among them a very singular one at Egeln in Germany, where two such spires are set immediately together upon the same tower. But however slender in their proportions such spires may otherwise be, they have a certain heavy massiveness of form. When therefore greater loftiness and lightness were aimed at in this feature, the adoption of a polygonal plan for it became almost matter of course; for although in a geometrical drawing the general outline and proportions of a spire are the same whether it be square or octangular in plan, the perspective or actual appearance is widely dif ferent; because in the latter case the diagonal breadth of the square tower below is cut off, and each side or plane of which the spire is composed becomes a much more pointed triangle. Besides which, the polygonal spire produces a degree of contrast and variety highly favourable to general effect in the Pointed style. Οι SPIRATELLA. [HYALIDA, vol. xii., p. 372.] SPIRAL VESSELS [TISSUES, VEGETABLE.] SPIRE (in German, Spitze, or Thurm-spitze; in French, Flèche, from its resemblance to the pointed tip of an arrow; but the Latin spira signifies a coil, or spiral line, and not an upright cone or pyramid). The term belongs to Gothic architecture, and is used to designate the tapering pyramidal mass erected on a tower by way of finish and ornament. That so little relative to spires is said in works on Gothic architecture is the more remarkable, because, in proportion to the number of examples, they exhibit more A gradual and progressive transition from the mere peak variety than almost any other separate feature in edifices or pyramidal roof to the slender tapering spire, cannot howin that style. Though the spire is a very striking feature ever be clearly traced. On the contrary, some of the earliest in a building, it has nothing to recommend it on the score deviations from the simple pyramidal form appear to have of direct utility. It is a mere external appendage to an produced uncouthness rather than lightness; for although edifice, since it does not, like the dome, contribute to any much greater loftiness upon the whole was so occasioned, the kind of effect whatever internally, a circumstance that appearance of it was reduced by the sides of the tower beseems to have been overlooked by Mr. A. W. Pugin, for ing made to terminate in gables cutting into, and therefore else he would hardly have made it a reproach against the partly cutting off, the base of the pyramid or spire itself. architect of St. Paul's, that the exterior dome of that fabric Many of the earlier German edifices contain examples of is merely for effect. Though the same objection might be this peculiarity-one almost confined to them; among made to the spire, we are far from urging it: mere utility is a others the cathedrals of Worms and Gelnhausen, the church low test of merit in architecture, and although this merit at Andernach, and that of the Apostles at Cologne, exhibit cannot be claimed for this feature in Gothic architecture, many varieties of spires, or rather spire-roofs, springing we hold the spire to be one of paramount value in it, inas-up from gables at their base; and in some the gables are much as that pyramidal figure concentrates all its principles so large and rise up so high, that the appearance of spire and characteristics, rendering it most eminently the Pointed is almost entirely lost. Such is the case with the pyramidal style. So considered, the spire may be said to be the key- covering of the square tower at the west end of the church stone of the whole idea of such style; that which visibly at Gelnhausen, of which the portion above the gable forms completes it. It serves, moreover, to impart an air of grace a mere capping. The same church offers other specimens ful lightness to the whole of a building, and to correct-if of the kind, there being, besides the one mentioned, a spire we may so express it-what might else be excess of length over the intersection of the transept, one over the apsis at as compared with the general height of a structure, by giving the east end, and two others over the towers adjoining it. a corresponding degree of loftiness to one portion of it. All these are polygonal, but otherwise differ-except that those to the towers are similar to each other-both in dimensions and proportions; that over the apsis being not quite so high as it is broad, while that over the transept is one diameter and a half, and the two others three diameters in height. They are all gabled at the base, and their ridges correspond with the apices of the gables, so that the sides or faces of the spire alternate with those of the tower; which last circumstance is almost peculiar to the earliest German spires. Another distinction belonging to them is, that except gables or pediments, they have nothing at their base, neither parapet nor pinnacles of any kind, which would serve at once as a finish to the tower, and as enrichment to the lower part of the spire. This is so different from the usual mode, that in this country a spire set immediately upon a tower without any parapet, &c. at its base, is technically described by the term Broach. Many other distinctions are needed, and if no better can be found, we would suggest that of Stump-spire for one whose height does not exceed two diameters of its base. The origin of the spire, like that of the pointed arch, is merely matter of conjecture. The probability is that it arose out of the peaked roof usually given to campaniles and towers of a preceding period, which form was afterwards gradually improved upon and refined, till it eventually grew Hôtel-de-Ville, at Ypres, has a spire clustered with fou. of very large pinnacles or small spires of tabernacle charac. exceedingly tall pinnacles or lesser spires. Where there | ter. Cambrai and Esslingen on the Neckar afford other are windows placed against a spire, rising upright like examples of open-work spires. the dormers or lucarnes on a roof, the term Lucarned There are various other circumstances which, though would express that character; we have therefore not scru- they do not affect the spire itself, produce greater or less pled to make use of it in the annexed table of spires, where difference in regard to the character of the structure of it is applied, among others, to those of Lichfield cathedral, which it is a component feature. Very much, for instance, which have several tiers of such windows, and are described depends upon its situation in the general plan: at Salisbury, accordingly. Crocketted and Banded are terms requiring Norwich, and Chichester, the spire is raised upon a tower no explanation; but in regard to the first it may be remarked, at the intersection of the cross, or in the centre of the plan; that spires, otherwise quite plain, are sometimes ornamented whereas in most continental cathedrals and large churches with crockets along their edges; and with respect to bands, there are two spires on the towers of the west front, though they are sometimes little more than string-mouldings, but in in some instances (Strassburg, Antwerp) only one has been other cases broad and enriched surfaces. Many of the spires erected. Several however have a single tower and spire in in Normandy are ornamented with such a number of bands, the centre of the west front (Ulm, Freyburg, Thann in that they form alternating courses with the plain spaces be- Alsace), in which case the tower itself begins to diminish tween them. Finialed is a term which does not apply to almost from the ground, and the whole becomes what we any of our English spires; but that of St. Stephen's, have described as of the tabernacle character. In most of Vienna, and some other continental spires, have an exceed- our English churches (not cathedrals) the spire is placed ingly large and rich finial, which ornament gives them a upon a tower at the west end, as at Grantham, Louth, particular boldness of expression. The Tabernacle-spire Bloxham, &c. If we except Peterborough, where they are also is one of which there is no example in this country, very diminutive, the only English cathedral which has two but of which the one just mentioned, and those of Strassburg, western spires is Lichfield, which is further remarkable as Ulm (as designed), Thann in Alsace, and my others, are having a central tower and spire also. Besides the richness specimens, the tower and spire being carried up from the and variety thus produced, the larger central spire serves to ground in a succession of diminishing stages, all profusely balance the whole composition, whereas else the body of the adorned with pannelling, niches, canopies, pinnacles, and structure is apt to look low in comparison with the west end. other tabernacle-work, in such a manner that it is barely At St. Stephen's, Vienna, the tower and spire are singularly possible to distinguish where the upright portion or tower placed on the south side of the edifice, it having been interminates, and the spire itself begins, the latter seeming tended to balance them by a corresponding tower on the little more than the uppermost stage in continuation of the north side. At Gelnhausen, on the contrary, there is a group rest. Neither have we any instances of Open-work spires, of spires, as already noticed, at the east end. or of such as, if not actually perforated, are yet entirely covered with tracery. That at Freyburg, and those at Burgos and Batalha, are all exceedingly rich specimens of the kind. The chapter-house of Burgos also has a series Although the building itself is by no means a tasteful example, the façade being in a rude and plain Norman design, the annexed view of St. Stephen's at Caen will assist in explaining some of the preceding observations. We have here two western towers and spires, which last | nominated cluster-based, the turrets with their smaller are not parapeted, but merely embased with turrets and stump-spires being clustered around the larger one. These pinnacles at their angles, rising up to a considerable spires are also lucarned below and banded; although in the height; consequently they answer to what we have de- I cut those circumstances are rather indicated than expressed. |